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UNCONQUERED ABYSSINIA a 
a AS IT IS TO-DAY | 


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UNCONQUERED 
ABYSSINIA 


AS IT IS TO-DAY 


AN ACCOUNT OF A LITTLE KNOWN COUNTRY, ITS PEOPLES 
& THEIR CUSTOMS, CONSIDERED FROM THE SOCIAL, 
ECONOMIC & GEOGRAPHIC POINTS OF VIEW, ITS 
RESOURCES & POSSIBILITIES, & ITS EXTRA- 
ORDINARY HISTORY AS A HITHERTO 
UNCONQUERED NATION 


BY 


CHARLES F. REY, F.R.G.S. 


WITH ILLUSTRATIONS & A MAP 


Philadelphia 
J. B. Lippincott Company 
London: Seeley Service && Co. Limited 
1924 


PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN 


TO 
MY WIFE 


AUTHOR’S ADVERTISEMENT TO THE 
READER 


O His Imperial Highness Ras Tafari Makonnen, 

Prince Regent and Heir to the Throne of 

Ethiopia, I wish to convey the expression of my 

very real gratitude for the information he has 

been good enough to place at my disposal, and for the 

interest he has otherwise shown in the preparation of this 

work. It is my earnest hope that it may tend in some 

small measure towards a better general knowledge of his 
country and its possibilities. 

I would ask those of my friends, both in Abyssinia and 
elsewhere, who have been good enough to give me infor- 
mation regarding, or photographs of, the country—especially 
Belata Herui, Signor Bertolani, and Monsieur Schrenzel— 
to accept my hearty thanks for the assistance they have 
thereby rendered me. 

My thanks are also due to the editor of the Morning Post 
for his courtesy in allowing me to reproduce some of the 
matter from articles which I had contributed to that 
journal. 

The kindness which the publishers of the book—notably 
Mr. Service and his reader—have shown me and the help 
they have given me have been of great value, and for 
this I am sincerely grateful. 

The stimulus, the encouragement and the practical help 
from start to finish which 1 owe to my wife are beyond 
acknowledgment—to her the book is due. 


CoP iiRs 


INTRODUCTION 


ISTORY, tradition, and romance have com- 
bined to make the land we describe as 
Abyssinia one of the most fascinating objects 
of study in Africa. 

From biblical times down to the present day Abyssinia 
has periodically emerged from the mysterious obscurity in 
which so much of its story is veiled, and has appeared on 
the world’s stage in connection with striking and even start- 
ling events, only to withdraw once again to seclusion 
behind the impenetrable barrier of its mountain ranges. 

Its early connection with Egypt, the wonderful story of 
the visit of Queen Makeda of Sheba to King Solomon, its 
early conversion to Christianity at a time when Europe 
was still a land of semi-savages, its conquest of part of 
Arabia, the story of its fleets trading as far as India, the 
asylum it afforded to Mahomet’s family at the time of his 
persecution, its long series of sanguinary wars against Islam 
as the bulwark of Christianity in Africa, the romantic 
expedition of the Portuguese under the valorous but 
unfortunate Christoforo da Gama, brother of the great 
navigator, the remarkable adventures of our great traveller 
James Bruce, the meteoric career of that extraordinary 
monarch King Theodore, so dramatically concluded by 
Lord Napier’s expedition, the disastrous efforts of the 
Italians to subjugate the country, the connection of 
Abyssinia with the one-time rivalry of France and England 
on the Nile—these are some of the great events which at 
one period or another brought Abyssinia before the world, 

9 


IO Introduction 


and which create in one’s mind so strong a desire to find 
out what is between, and to see for oneself how much is 
left. 

Tales of customs and practices, hundreds—even thou- 
sands—of years old, of a religion unchanged since its 
inception 1600 years ago, of forms of government older 
than any existing, of which we had read or had been told, 
stimulated our interest, and it was accordingly with 
feelings of high expectation, mingled with some fear lest 
the hand of modernity should have been laid too heavily 
upon the last surviving independent Empire in Africa, that 
we set out on our first visit to the land originally described 
by Father Alvarez in his narrative of the journey of the 
Portuguese Mission under Dom Rodriguez da Lima in 
1520-7. 

We were, I am glad to say, not disappointed; and so 
great was the fascination exercised on us by the country 
during two periods of residence, the last ending in 1923, 
that we shall hope to return again. During both these 
journeys I kept a full record of all that could be seen and 
learned of the people and of the country as it exists to-day, 
and in the interval between the two, research among the 
records of libraries and museums at home and abroad filled 


in gaps in my knowledge and explained much that had 
appeared difficult to understand. And H.H. Ras Tafari 
himself has been more than kind in supplying me with 
information and giving me access to official records. 

As a result it has seemed worth while to attempt to give 
to the public what I do not think exists to-day: a picture 
of Abyssinia at the present time, its customs, institutions, 
races, and religions, and an idea of the country as it strikes 
a foreign observer who has tried to be unbiassed and 
unprejudiced. 

It is far from easy to convey a really accurate idea of the 
state of evolution of this strange land, for it is such a 


Introduction II 


quaint blend of the modern, the medizval and the ancient, 
and the impressions it leaves are so kaleidoscopic, that a 
clear and definite picture of the country or the people as a 
whole is difficult of attainment. 

And this applies to almost every phase of the life and 
working of Abyssinia. In the palace itself, for example, 
one meets with such violent contrasts. Compare the 
culture of Ras Tafari and his wife, the former so advanced 
as to read the latest Bolshevist works, giving luncheon 
parties with a European menu and an excellent wine list, 
and then, perhaps the next day, the royal banquet of 15,000 
men devouring raw meat; the railway running into Addis 
Ababa, and within a few hundred yards a man having his 
hand or foot amputated for theft; native tailors working 
busily with the latest type of sewing machine, under the 
shadow of their fellow-countrymen hanging on trees in the 
market-place ; a reception of Europeans and Abyssinians 
at the palace graced by cigarettes, coffee, and liqueurs, and 
in a field near by the priests dancing before the Ark of the 
Covenant; the peasants almost within Addis Ababa 
ploughing with the same implements that were used 2000 
years ago, whilst bills are being discounted on Paris and 
Bombay. The mosaic law, the feudal system, and the most 
modern ideas jostle each other throughout, and the intro- 
duction of the new does not appear to displace, but to sur- 
vive side by side with the old in the life of a nation that, 
to quote a recent writer, is young to-day, though it was 
powerful when the book of Genesis was written, and was 
Christian when our ancestors still worshipped Thor and 
Odin. 

The future of the country lies largely in the hands of 
Ras Tafari, the Prince Regent and Heir-Apparent, an able 
man, a patriot, and an indefatigable worker. 

Many difficulties face him, both internal and external ; 
abuses and malpractices of no mean order call for remedy 


12 Introduction 


and are likely to tax his resources to the uttermost ; 
jealousies and intrigues of countries and of persons exalted 
and humble stand in the way of a reformed administration 
and a developed country; and the help of Europeans of 
ability, experience and integrity is vitally needed in 
wrestling with the problems raised by an awakening 
Abyssinia. 

But if Ras Tafari can only be assured of the united and 
disinterested support of the three Great European Powers 
whose territories border on his own the outlook for the 
ancient Empire of Ethiopia should be a bright one. 

Inevitable though it may be, the modernizing of this 
wonderfully beautiful old land must cause a pang of regret 
to any lover of the picturesque and the antique ; and it is 
perhaps allowable to express a hope that when the “ spring- 
cleaning ” does take place, some of the old atmosphere will 
be left to remind one of the barbaric splendour of 2000 
years ago that still exists in Abyssinia to-day. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER I aire 
A Lirtte Known Lanp . : : ; ; A ; EELS 
CHAPTER II 
GeneraL DescripTION OF THE COUNTRY ; ; : : Ram 


CHAPTER III 


Tue Races or ABYssINIA AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS . A was 
CHAPTER IV 

Tue Races or ABYSSINIA AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS—continued . 50 
CHAPTER V 

Customs AND PRacTICEs 7 ‘ : , : : er OE 
CHAPTER VI 

Customs AND Practices—continued  . > ; : ; here 


CHAPTER VII 


OrIcIN AND History oF THE ABYSSINIANS—UP TO THE RESTORATION 
OF THE SoLtomon LINE, circa a.D. 1260. : : } UNA 


CHAPTER VIII 


History oF THE ABYSsINIANS—F ROM THE RESTORATION OF THE SOLOMON 


Line (circa a.D. 1260) uNTIL To-pay . E : : aan 
CHAPTER IX 

Form or GovERNMENT ; : : - : ‘ ; Ae Gy? 
CHAPTER X 

Law anp THE ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE . Pe : Rize hy: 
CHAPTER XI 

RELIGION AND THE CHURCH ; ! : . ’ ; ee kas 


13 


14 Contents 


CHAPTER XII 


Reuicious Practice AND PAGEANTRY 


CHAPTER XIII 
Appis ABABA 


CHAPTER XIV 


Lancuace, Epucation, LireratureE AND ART 


CHAPTER XV 
Tue Army 


CHAPTER XVI 
SLAVERY AND SERFDOM 


CHAPTER XVII 


TRADE AND COMMERCE—VOLUME AND NATuRE 


CHAPTER XVIII 


TRADE AND COoMMERCE—DIFFICULTIES . 


CHAPTER XIX 


AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY 


CHAPTER XX 


CoMMUNICATIONS, TRAVEL AND TREKKING 


CHAPTER XXI 
Animat Lire . 4 é ~ B 


CHAPTER XXII 
Forricn Lire anD INFLUENCE 


CHAPTER XXIII 
PoxiticaL SITUATION . 


CHAPTER XXIV 
Tue Present CoNnDITION OF THE COUNTRY . 


CHAPTER XXV 
Tue Furure: PosstBiLitiges AND PROSPECTS . 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


Tue AurHor IN THE Dress oF AN ABYSSINIAN DEJAZMACH  . Frontispiece 
FACING PAGE 
A Younc Woman oF THE Aruss! GALLA . ' : : A gnee 
H.H. Waizeru Menin : ] : ; : ‘ ‘ pet Oe 
Tue Great Gespur or Raw Meat Banquet : : : Shs Ot 
ABYssINIAN GRANDEES . , : , ; : ; 4 ete pr 
H.1.H. Ras Tarart Maxonnen, G.C.M.G. . : : 2 3 UO 
Tue Ex-Emperor Ley Yasu AND HIS TUTOR : . : - 100 
A Norasie Group or ABYSSINIANS : ; ‘ : : . 100 
H.I.M. Tue Empress Zaupitu or ETHIOPIA be : , . 104 
A Warninc To Evit-Doerrs ; . : : 4 : seoaZo 
Tue Marxet-Piace at Appis ABABA . ; ; d ; a Re 
Tue Dance or THE Prissts : : F : ‘ y tity et: 
FacstmILe OF A LETTER FROM THE EMPRESS OF ABYSSINIA taki 
AUTHOR ~. ; : : i 3 ; ‘ : wenaG 
A “Roap” in THE Arusst Mountains ; : : ‘ a ERR 
Tue AuTHor AND HIs WIFE P ; , p : ; Pare Ly: 


5 


16 List of Illustrations 


A Grursome Meat . b ‘ , : ; : 
An ApsyssiIntan Warrior IN Fantasta Dress 

PREPARING Raw CoTTon FOR SPINNING : . 4 
WEAVING 

GRINDING TEFF FOR BREADMAKING 

Tue Lion Gate at Harrar 


Tue Court SILVERSMITH AT WorK 


Basket-MAakING i J i / : s 
A Minor Cuter or THE Arusst GALLA : F : 
Tue Reep Canoes oF LAKE Zwal y 2 : 4 


Tue Royat STAND AT THE RACES ‘ : : m 


FACING PAGE 


176 
176 
200 
200 
208 
208 
Rady | 
224 
- 234 
234 


~ 250 


Unconquered Abyssinia 
As it is To-day 


CHAPTER I 
A Little Known Land 


DISTINGUISHED Member of Parliament, to 
whom I was talking the other day, asked me 
where I had been lately, and on my telling him 
| that I had just returned from Abyssinia— 
*“ Abyssinia,” he said; “let me see, just where is it? 
It’s a long way off, isn’t it ? ” 

It is, and that no doubt is one of the reasons why so 
little is known of that most fascinating country and so 
few people visit it. But its remoteness is not the main 
reason. It has been until just recently one of the most 
inaccessible countries of the world, perched on its moun- 
tainous plateaux, surrounded by deserts, cut off from access 
to the sea, and inhabited by people who bore no love to 
foreigners, and exhibited their dislike in primitive and 
drastic fashion. 

It is difficult to state exactly who was the first European 
to set foot there—no doubt many who reached the country 
hever returned, and left no trace of their adventurous 
passage. But we have records of one early pioneer who 
must have been there as early as 1478. Curiously enough 
he was a Venetian painter, Francisco de Branca Leone 
by name, who combined much dialectical skill in theology 
with his painting and who created a considerable stir in 
the country. For he painted a very large and beautiful 
picture of the Virgin holding the infant Christ in her left 

B 


18 A Little Known Land 
arm. ‘The King Beda Maryam was delighted with the 


work and placed it in his principal church—but not so 
the priesthood. Rank sacrilege and blasphemy was their 
cry—had not the Frank placed the Child on the Madonna’s 
left arm instead of in his proper place on the right? 
And as the King would not accede to their gentle request 
to burn the picture and execute the sacrilegious Frank, 
civil war broke out and took some time to quell. 

Branca Leone left no book to tell of his adventures, 
and neither he nor the next traveller to those realms, 
Pedro da Covilham, ever left the country. Covilham had 
been sent by his royal master of Portugal to discover the 
land of Prester John, that mythical potentate of fabulous 
wealth and power whose realms were variously described 
as being in China and in Africa or anywhere else where 
no one had ever been. ‘The intrepid Portuguese reached 
Abyssinia in 1490, after some years’ wandering, and here 
he was found by the Portuguese mission under Dom Rodri- 
guez da Lima, whose adventures in Abyssinia from 1520 
to 1527 have been immortalized in the work of the chaplain 
to the party, Father Francisco Alvarez, the first book ever 
to be written by a traveller to the country. 

Alvarez and his party had some wonderful adventures— 
he also told some wonderful stories (I use the word in its 
historical sense!), and one of them is so remarkable that 
I cannot forbear quoting it. During his march to the 
King’s headquarters, the country through which he passed 
was apparently suffering from one of its periodical visita- 
tions of locusts—a terrible infliction—and the people 
came to him praying for his assistance in ridding them 
of the accursed pest. Robed in all his canonicals and armed 
with cross and prayer-book Alvarez marched to meet the 
winged enemy. He directed some of the beasts to be 
caught alive, and then gave the prisoners a terrible message 
for their companions which he had previously written out 
—nothing less than to use his own words— 


A Little Known Land 19 


“ 4 requisition and admonition of ex-communication .. . 
that within three hours they should begin to set out on 
their way and go to the sea or to the country of the Moors 
or to mountains of no profit to Christians: and should 
they not do so it called upon and invoked the birds of the 
air and the animals of the earth and the storms and tempests 
to disperse and break and devour their bodies.” 

Terrified by this appalling edict the locusts (who appar- 
ently understood the Portuguese language) fled in their 
millions towards the sea, passing on their way Alvarez and his 
party, who had proceeded in that direction, and who 
reported that “‘ there were so many coming after us that it 
seemed as though they would break our ribs and heads 
driving against us—such were the thumps they inflicted on 
us... Ihe next day there was not a single one alive in the 
whole country.” 

One really does not know which to admire most, the 
admirable discipline of the beasts or the historical powers of 
the priest. 

Between the arrival of Covilham and that of da Lima’s 
mission a party of sixteen Christians who had been enslaved 
by the Turks had escaped from Jedda and had made their 
way into Abyssinia—Spaniards, Greeks, a Basque, Germans 
and Genoese—and these men were also found at the King’s 
Court by the Portuguese in 1520. 

The heroic Christoforo da Gama with his handful of 
musqueteers was the next arrival in Ethiopia and he was 
followed at intervals during the next eighty years by a 
series of Portuguese missionaries, the most notable of whom 
was probably Father Paez, who laboured there for nearly 
twenty years and built churches, palaces and bridges, some 
of which may be seen near Gondar to this day. 

For nearly one hundred and fifty years after that the 
country remained practically closed to foreigners, i.e. until 
the arrival of our great traveller, James Bruce, in 1769. 
During this period only two parties are known to have 


20 A Little Known Land 


entered Abyssinia, one consisting of a French doctor and a 
Jesuit, the accounts of whose experiences require a good 
deal of credulity to assimilate, a golden rod suspended in 
the air and a mule miraculously transported over precipices 
being included in the “ facts” presented to readers of 
their memoirs. 

The other party, consisting of three Italian priests, made 
a very short stay and had a very poor time. ‘They were 
asked a series of questions to prove how learned they were in 
their religion, such as “‘ Where are the tables of Moses now ? 
In what language will God judge the world ? What was the 
first language spoken?’ Apparently they failed lament- 
ably to answer these simple queries, and whether it was due 
to indignation at their ignorance or for other reasons they 
were turned out of the country neck and crop with nothing 
left to them but their clothes. 

After Bruce’s departure in 1772 there was another gap 
until 1808, when a series of English travellers began to visit 
the country followed by some missionaries. The first 
French explorers did not arrive until about 1835, and from 
that time onwards quite a number of Europeans came to 
Abyssinia to explore, to travel, to shoot or to convert ; 
there are interesting records of about thirty of such expedi- 
tions or missions between that time and the influx of 
missionaries and artificers who were later on found locked 
up in Magdala by Lord Napier’s expedition. 

They came and went by various routes—through Mas- 
sowa in the north-east, the Soudan on the west, or Somali- 
Jand on the south—but one and all had the same tale to tell 
of difficulty of access, of arduous travelling, and of hostile 
receptions at one point or another. 

Not until the railway reached Addis Ababa in 1917-18 was 
it possible to enter the country with any facility, but now 
of course that route has made the entrance into Abyssinia 
via Djibouti easy enough. ‘The excellent steamers of the 
Messageries Maritimes (the best of which compare more 


A Little Known Land ny 


than favourably with the much overrated P. & O. boats) do 
the journey from Marseilles to Djibouti (French Somali- 
land) in ten days and it is only at this stage that travelling 
becomes less luxurious though far more interesting. 

Djibouti is the port, capital, and only settlement of any 
importance in French Somaliland. It is situated on the 
southern shore of Tajura Bay, on the north of which lies 
Obok, the original French settlement in this inhospitable 
region. Obok and the surrounding territory was bought 
by the French in 1862 from the local rulers for $10,000 
(then about 50,000 francs) and was later used as a port and 
coaling station. It was not until 1884-5 that it was formally 
annexed or “ protected ” in virtue of a treaty made with 
the Sultan of ‘Tajura—in violation it may be mentioned of 
an agreement between that potentate and ourselves—and in 
1892 the seat of government was transferred to Djibouti 
because the route from Obok to the interior was found to 
be impracticable. 

It is curious how diametrically opposite are the impres- 
sions often created in the minds of different people by 
identically the same places or happenings. Thus Lord 
Hindlip in his book “Sport and Travel,” referring to 
Djibouti in July, 1903, describes the place as “‘ more dead 
than alive.’ While Mr. Skinner, the American Commis- 
sioner, who passed through Djibouti in November of the 
same year refers to it in his book as “ a monument to French 
persistence and creative skill,” and as being “‘ admirable.” 

I fancy that Mr. Skinner’s impressions must have been 
slightly tinged by the warmth of the Governor’s reception, 
to which he refers as follows: ‘‘ Our experiences at Djibouti 
ended in a blaze of glory at the Government (s1c) where an 
amiable Governor and his charming wife, surrounded by the 
leading residents, made féte over us in the most graceful and 
hospitable manner possible.”” Obviously captious criticism 
after that would have been difficult ! 

Personally, in spite of the kindness of the reception of 


22 A Little Known Land 


two different French governors on the occasion of four 
visits to Djibouti, I find it exceedingly difficult to say very 
much in favour of the place. The climate is not unhealthy, 
but it is generally abominably hot, and in the months of the 
south-west monsoon unbearably so. There is little facility 
for either recreation or amusement of any kind. There is 
hardly any vegetation, and wedged in as it is between a 
rocky desert and the sea, it is a place that one may be glad to 
have seen, but is not anxious to see again. 

It has certainly improved in the period between my first 
and last visits. A few more trees have been planted, electric 
light has been installed, and a new hotel has been opened. 
It is clean and bright-looking, but contains little of interest 
with the exception of the Somali native quarter and the 

camel and other markets which are not very different from 
_ those of any other small East African township. 

Such as it is, however, Djibouti must (and this constitutes 
its one claim to fame) be regarded as the outer courtyard of 
the entrance of Abyssinia. 

It isa remarkable entrance. The gateway is an abomina- — 
tion of desolation, the arid wastes of which give no promise 
of the wonderful land that lies beyond. But once through 
the gateway the country begins to change and gradually as 
the train rises during the day the memory of the morning’s 
journey seems but a nightmare. For the first 90 kilometres 
the line runs through that hot and dreadful desert which is 
French Somaliland—rocks and sand, sand and rocks— 
parched and cracked by the sun, unrelieved by water or 
vegetation, a forbidding looking tract. And then we reached 
the frontier station of Daounlé, a funny little primitive 
place over which flies the Abyssinian tricolour with its 
green, red, and yellow stripes flanked on one side by a tiny 
French fort perched up at the top of a great rock, on the 
other by a square concrete pillar marking the boundary 
between France and Ethiopia. 

And then onwards through amazing country. The 


A Little Known Land 23 


land for miles seems to have been rent and twisted by great 
convulsions of Nature forcing it into every kind of con- 
torted form. Great masses of volcanic rock are piled one on 
the other—huge clefts and fissures show their raw rough 
edges as if split with some gigantic axe—brown earth, red 
earth, black earth, all piled and mixed together, a sort of 
vast battlefield of Titans. And on to the west rising out of 
all this chaos is a miniature Abyssinia ; hundreds of hills, 
cone-shaped and pointed, leading on to larger flat-topped 
hills beyond, typifying on a small scale the mountain ranges 
and the plateaux which constitute our goal. And as we get 
amongst them, these great crags seem to look down in silent 
wonder and contempt at the desecrating audacity of our 
fussy little train puffing along at their feet. 

If we were glad enough to leave Djibouti we were 
delighted to reach our first night’s halt at Dirre-Daoua—a 
pleasant little town about 4000 feet above sea-level which 
was for many years the terminus of the railway whilst 
international political and financial interests fought over its 
future, and incidentally diverted it from its original goal, 
the ancient town of Harrar, about 35 miles away, slightly to 
the east of south. 

Dirre-Daoua is a flourishing little place containing a num- 
ber of well-built houses, erected originally for the large 
number of officials and others connected with the construc- 
tion of the railway ; this attracted European traders and 
their representatives, Indian and Arab merchants set up in 
business, and a branch of the Bank of Abyssinia was opened. 
Its importance has been kept up owing to the enforced col- 
lection there for Customs purposes of all goods entering or 
leaving the country and the consequent necessity for the 
maintenance there of agencies by business houses in Addis 
and elsewhere. | 

In some ways Dirre-Daoua is the most progressive town 
in Abyssinia ; water is laid on, the roads are good, trees and 
shrubs are planted along the main thoroughfares, and the 


24 A Little Known Land 


hotel is able to provide the dusty and train-weary traveller 
with a real big bath and an excellently cooked meal. The 
mountain scenery to the south of the town is really grand— 
whilst to the north stretches the great plain of the Hawash 
and its tributaries, that strange river which rising to the 
west of Addis Ababa flows for several hundred miles half across 
Abyssinia only to die in the sands before it can reach the sea. 

The second day’s journey took us along the foot of the 
Tchertcher Mountains to the suspension bridge over the 
Hawash River, leaving the great peaks of Mts. Afdam and 
Assabot to the North. ‘Twisting in and out through gorges 
and over ravines the train crept along, now hugging the 
side of a cliff with a deep drop on the far side, now brushing 
its way through vegetation that swept the sides of the cars, 
and again climbing painfully up gradients that seemed so 
steep as to threaten a stop at every moment, until at last we 
dropped down a long incline to the primitive little station 
of Hawash, a mere collection of huts in the bush surround- 
ing the rest-house which is glorified by the name of “ Buffet 
et Hotel de L’Aouache.” 

A good shooting centre this and one frequented by 
sportsmen who often start off their safaris from here in 
quest of game, or by residents in Addis Ababa who feel it 
necessary to drop down a few thousand feet for rest as a 
result of too long a stay in the great altitude of the capital. 

The hotel, though not luxurious, is much improved since 
the days when we first made its aquaintance ; and though 
a bath in the fully accepted sense of the word is a blessing 
yet to come, it is possible to remove the outer layers of the 
journey’s dust by standing under a tin with a hole in 
the bottom of it, suspended from the roof of a shed from 
which water sometimes emerges when a string is pulled. It 
is, however, a haunt of mosquitoes, and both here and at 
Dirre-Daoua it is advisable to sleep under nets, a disagree- 
able necessity which does not arise in the higher levels of 


Addis Ababa. 


A Little Known Land 25 


The third and last day’s journey is by far the most 
pleasant even though a start has to be made before 6 a.m., 
for we have to climb 5400 feet in the day, no mean task. 

The sun was rising as we got under way, a beautiful sight 
in this mountain land of which I never tired. First of all 
a pinkish reflection began to show in the little morning 
clouds in the east, then the pink glow grew gradually 
stronger, turning to a beautiful pale reddish colour in the 
clouds hovering over a bright blue strip of sky; this 
exquisite and subdued effect in the east was reflected still 
more delicately in the west while in the north and south the 
sky was yet dark. ‘Then gradually soft gold began to replace 
the pink and red, and finally very gently up came the sun 
itself, blazing over the edge of the mountains and turning 
the whole sky into a brilliant blue lake without a cloud to mar 
its serene magnificence. ‘Truly a picture to make the heart 
rejoice, and to cause one to feel that it is good to be alive. 

More and more rugged grows the scenery as we jog along, 
and at the primitive little wayside halts which generally 
consist of a few hovels and huts and are glorified by the 
name of stations, the Abyssinian in his chamma accompanied 
by his beloved rifle gradually takes the place of the Somali, 
in his bright-coloured cotton clothing, and the Dankali with 
his dirty covering of rags, his touzled hair (sometimes dyed 
bright red) topped by a wooden pin or comb, and his long, 
evil-looking spear. 

Native bread, eggs, sugar-cane, live ducks, chickens, 
guinea-fowl, and sometimes even small gazelles are brought 
up for sale at these stopping-places, and bargaining proceeds 
amid a perfect babel of sound, until with a scream from the 
engine and many jerks as the train faces the ever-steepening 
gradient on we go again, the little naked children scamper 
along the line begging for piastres with shrill screams of 
“ Alamé”?—a corruption of the coast-boy’s cry of “ 4 la 
mer *? when asking for a coin to be thrown into the sea for 
him to retrieve by diving off the ship’s side. 


26 A Little Known Land 


Cultivation became more plentiful, villages more numer- 
ous as we approached the capital—but we were dropped 
heavily back into the past as we rounded some hills and saw 
them thickly studded with caves in which people live and 
have their being even to-day—a possible survival of the cave- 
dwellers thousands of years ago who are by some supposed 
to have been the forerunners of the modern inhabitants. 

And finally, after a few last twists and curls, we run into 
Addis, nestling in its eucalyptus forests at the foot of the 
Entoto Hills, and in the midst of an excited, shouting throng 
of peoples of many races we endeavour to find our friends, 
pick out our luggage, and get hold of means of transport. 

Camels for the heavy luggage, Gourages for the light 
stuff, mules for the Abyssinians, ponies for the Europeans— 
all seem to be mixed up in inextricable confusion, out of 
which it is, however, easy to pick up the red and white 
pennons on the lances of the British Legation Sowar escort, 
and the picturesque uniforms of the askaris of the other 
foreign missions in Addis. 

To add to the turmoil, Ras Tafari, with the kindness that 
he always shows us, has sent his own motor-car carrying his — 
secretary and others to meet us, and the invincible hostility 
of nearly every beast in the place is at once manifested to 
this horrible innovation! Alone the camels look down in 
solemn, silent contempt on this monstrosity—they know 
well that the roads of Addis are more suitable for them 
than for this latest device of the Frangi. 

Of course the car would not start—that happens some- 
times in Europe, I believe—but at length amid a picturesque 
procession of Abyssinians, Gallas, Gourages, Somalis, 
Indians, Greeks, Syrians, and Armenians, on horseback, on 
mules, and on foot, resplendent in their many-coloured 
turbans and costumes, we made our way to the hotel in 
the evening sunshine through the long avenues of green 
grass and eucalyptus trees that constitute the roads in 
Abyssinia’s capital. 


CHAPTER II 
General Description of the Country 


HE country that we know to-day politically and 

geographically as Abyssinia is of very recent 

creation in its present shape, dating practically 

from the series of boundary treaties concluded by 
the Emperor Menelik with England, France, and Italy after 
his victory over the last-named Power in 1896. 

Incidentally it may be mentioned that the people do not 
refer to their country as “‘ Abyssinia” but as “‘ Ethiopia,” 
no doubt on account of the historical and religious associa- 
tions of that term, which in fact was quite a different 
geographical division. 

The area covered by Abyssinia has changed a good deal 
since the country’s early days; it has lost the whole of its 
sea coast, which originally extended from Suakin to Cape 
Guardafui ; its former ports, of which Adulis (in Annesley 
Bay) was probably the most important, are all in the hands 
of European powers ; its northern provinces have fallen to 
Italy ; the Sudan has encroached on the north-west. 

On the other hand, it has extended considerably to the 
west, the south and south-east consequent on Menelik’s 
conquests, the results of which were practically to double 
the area of the Empire previously existing. 

It is to-day what Menelik made it, a single Empire about 
three and a half times the size of the United Kingdom, 
extending from 3° to 15° N. lat. and from 33° to 47° E. 
long., embracing as provinces what were formerly the 
kingdoms or quasi-kingdoms of Tigré, Amhara, Gojam and 

27 


28 General Description of the Country 


Shoa, many smaller states and large districts such, for 
example, as Semyen, Waag, Lasta, Walega, Kaffa, Boran, 
Harrar, Ogaden, and Dankali; and including such various 
races (in addition to the different branches of the Abyssinians 
themselves) as Gallas, Gourages, Falashas, Danakils, Somals, 
and Shankala, the last being a generic term covering the 
negro or negroid races to the north-west. 

It is for the most part a mountainous tableland rising out 
of low country by which it is practically surrounded and 
falls geographically into four rough divisions—the Dankali 
lowlands in the north-east, the Somaliland plateau to the 
south-east, the Galla highlands to the south-west, and the 
main Ethiopian plateau in the centre extending to the north 
and north-west. 

It might in less technical and more homely language be 
described as a garden surrounded by desert, for indeed I do 
not think (and I am echoing the words of many other 
travellers in this) that a more excellent climate, more beau- 
tiful and varied scenery, and greater fertility of soil, can be 
found anywhere in Africa. 

Of course the climate and temperature vary considerably 
in different parts of the country in accordance with the 
altitude, which ranges from sea-level to 12,000 feet; for 
example, while snow is found on some of the highest moun- 
tains in the north the heat in the lowlands is great and the 
climate exceedingly unhealthy, so much so that the hill- 
bred Abyssinian hates to penetrate into these regions, and 
very often dies there when he goes. 

The climatic conditions on the main Abyssinian plateau, 
of which the height is from 6000 to 8000 feet, are delightful ; 
throughout almost the whole year one enjoys a temperature 
akin, to that of a temperate English summer’s day, and I 
think the following extract from my diary speaks for itself 
as to the conditions :— 

“* Addis Ababa, Nov. 4th. I don’t think any climate in 
the world could beat this, it’s perfect. Morning after 


General Description of the Country 29 


morning we awake to brilliant warm sunshine, but it is never 
unpleasantly hot, on account of the cool breeze and the 
altitude. Bright sun all day and quite cold at nights, so 
that we sleep beautifully. It is difficult to realize the close 
proximity to the Equator. I am often sorely tempted to 
tell people at breakfast that it’s a fine day, a foolish remark 
indeed, because it is always fine. It’s impossible to realize 
that one is in November, the English month of damp and 
fog, when here every day and all day is just lovely.” 


It is a climate eminently suitable to healthy Europeans 
provided always that the heart is sound ; the high altitude 
and rarified atmosphere of the plateau will soon find out 
any weakness of that kind, or of the nervous system, and for 
that reason it is as well to be overhauled before determining 
on any lengthy stay here. J have known cases of people 
who have had to leave, sometimes hastily, on account of 
heart or nerve trouble, but of course they were not sound 
in these respects on arrival. In any event it is always well 
to avoid violent exercise for the first days after reaching the 
capital. 

Curiously enough the only creatures to which the climate 
seems really inimical are European dogs, which rarely survive 
more than a few months; they develop a sort of anemia, 
their gums become white and bloodless, and they just seem 
to flicker out of existence. 

The rainfall averages about 1250 millimetres at Addis 
Ababa, where it is heavier than at other places where obser- 
vations have been made ; at Gondar, for example, recorded 
observations give an average of about 1000 millimetres and 
at Harrar about goo. 

The year may roughly be divided into two seasons, i.e. 
the dry (Baga) lasting from the end of September to mid- 
June, and the rains (K’aramth) which last only three and a 
half months, i.e. from mid-June to the end of September. 

Generally there is a period known as the “ little rains,” 
which is supposed to last for about six weeks during 


30 General Description of the Country 


February and March (or sometimes April), when there 
are a few intermittent showers. But the “little rains” 
are as erratic and unreliable as an English meteoro- 
logical forecast ; sometimes they do not come on at all, 
sometimes they are a month or two late, sometimes they 
trickle into the rainy season proper, and sometimes, as in 
the present year, they start at the appointed time (mid- 
February) and are very heavy—indeed, I was told they 
have not been so heavy since 1906. 

This rainy season is not at all unpleasant, for though 
it rains for some part of the day during most days, and the 
rain comes down in torrential showers, short and sharp, 
yet between these showers the brilliant sun dispels the 
clouds, and the atmosphere is so dry that there is no feeling 
of dampness or mugginess in the air such as one generally 
experiences in the tropics. ‘The whole country looks at 
its best during and just after K’aramth, the verdure is 
abundant and the flowers, both wild and cultivated, are 
gorgeous. 

But when it does rain it does rain. ‘The water falls in 
such torrents that in a few minutes the roads are like 
streams, and the rivers which half an hour before were 
trickling so slowly that their movement was almost imper- 
ceptible, become swirling foam-covered masses of water, 
thundering up their banks and carrying all before them 
in their mad rush, logs and trees, quantities of stone, 
boulders and earth. ‘Then the usual fording places are 
of course impassable, and the traveller must be content 
either to wait a couple of hours till the swirling tide has 
abated, or else go round by a bridge, if he can find one. 

At these times natives coming into market or starting 
on a trip of some distance are frequently to be seen carrying 
about with them a sort of shaped mat of plaited grass, 
looking like a glorified folding beehive; and it is most 
comical to see them put this up and curl up inside like a 
tortoise in its shell, until the storm is over. 


General Description of the Country 31 


Hail falls in such large lumps as to be really painful if 
one is out in a storm for long; we used, however, to turn 
it to good account by using it for making ice-puddings— 
a great luxury, as freezing machines are unknown in 
Abyssinia. 

The effects of the Abyssinian rains extend far beyond 
Abyssinia itself, indeed it is not too much to say that the 
prosperity of Egypt depends upon them. For at these 
seasons the Atbara and the Blue Nile, rising in the moun- 
tains of Abyssinia and swollen by their many tributaries, 
become veritable torrents, carrying down huge masses of 
their native earth, rush into the White Nile and convert its 
originally clear waters into a muddy mass, which pours 
down into the plains of Egypt and overflows its normal 
banks. On the waters retiring they leave this rich mud 
covering the surrounding country, on which the natives 
have then only to plant their seeds in the sublime confidence 
that their labours are ended until the moment comes for 
them to reap the plentiful harvest brought to its fulfilment 
merely by the everlasting warmth and brilliance of the sun. 

So important to Egypt is this annual Abyssinian contri- 
bution, that in a Treaty made in 1902 with the Emperor 
Menelik, a provision was incorporated by which the latter 
bound himself not to allow the construction of any work 
across the Blue Nile without the consent of the British 
Government. 

I observed a curious phenomenon on the occasion of 
our last visit, and one that was corroborated by other 
observers. It is that the country was undoubtedly drier, 
and that there was less water in the lakes and in the rivers 
than at the corresponding period of three years ago when 
we traversed the same country, or when we could check 
our observations by those of other persons. For example, 
at two different places on the Hawash several days’ journey 
apart, the difference in the river level now and then was 
seven or eight feet ; and on the borders of Lake Zwai in 


32 General Description of the Country 


one place we had to go nearly half a mile from the bush 
to the water’s edge, whereas at this time three years ago 
the bush was within a few yards of the water. 

Whether this is due to the alleged “ desiccation ” of 
Africa to which I have seen references, or whether it is 
merely owing to the fact that the rains have been short 
for the last two or three years I cannot say—but undoubt- 
edly the fact is there. As the “‘ little rains ” in the present 
February have been considerably above the average, it 
may be that what I have referred to is only a passing phase- 
Let us hope so. 

There is quite an imposing river system in Abyssinia, 
but in common with most tropical waterways they are 
torrents in the rainy season and streams in the dry; some 
of them never reach the coast but lose themselves on the 
way from the mountains through the lowlands towards 
the sea; such an one is the great Hawash River which, 
rising in Mt. Metcha, loses itself near the Assa Lake close 
to the Red Sea west of Djibouti; some flowing towards 
the south-west are swallowed up by sponge-like country 
before they can reach Lake Rudolph or the Nile. That 
at least is the accepted theory, but it is at all events possible 
that some of these rivers may dive underground and reach 
the sea in that way. An argument in support of this 
theory is that fresh water has been found by digging at 
places between the disappearance of the Hawash and the 
Red Sea, and it is also alleged that inlets of fresh water 
have been found off the coast which may well come from 
a river flowing into the sea at some low level. 

Abyssinia is rich in lakes—great Tsana in the north 
gives birth to the Blue Nile—the Abai—and in the south 
there is a regular chain of nine lakes, ending with Rudolph, 
over 200 miles long, though only the northern extremity 
of this inland sea lies within the Abyssinian frontier. 

A curious feature of these nine lakes was remarked on 
by Mr. Hodson in some notes contributed by him to the 


General Description of the Country 33 


“Geographical Journal”; he points out that although 
there is communication between some of them, some are 


fresh, some salt ; some are full of crocodiles and in others 


there are none. There are crocodiles in some of both the 


fresh and salt lakes, so their presence evidently does not 


depend on this property of the water. 


The country must at no remote period have been 
densely wooded in many parts, but the appalling waste- 


fulness of the people as regards timber has resulted in the 
deforestation of enormous areas. Wherever a king fixed 


his capital, or a general his camp, the trees for miles round 
were cut down for fuel and building, and as no replanting 
was ever undertaken, whole towns have had to be removed 
on account of wood famine. In spite of this there are 
still some wonderful forests in the country, in the 
Tchertcher district and near Addis, at Djam Djam for 
example. 

There are comparatively few towns of any size in 
the country, a fact which is hardly surprising in view 
of the backwardness of industry and the absence of 
communications. 

As regards the villages, there is no very marked difference 
from other African places of the kind as to merit special 
attention, except that they are invariably built at the 


‘tops of hills and in the high land. The Abyssinian is 
essentially a highlander—he hates the hot climate of the 
lowlands, and partly for that reason, partly, no doubt, 


for reasons of safety, he seems to have planted his habita- 
tions on the highest spots he could find. 

Apart from the capital, the most important towns are, 
perhaps, Dirre-Daoua, the main halt on the railway between 
Addis and the coast ; Harrar, the centre and market town of 
the province of the same name, known as the Garden of 
Abyssinia, the ancient city which Burton was the first 


white man to visit, and which he described so graphically 
in “ First Footsteps in Africa” ; Axum, far away to the 


Cc 


34. General Description of the Country 


north of 'Tigré, the holy city of Abyssinia, the crowning- 
place of its Emperors, the repository of many of its oldest 
traditions; Lalibala, a small place in Lasta, famous only 
for the wonderful churches cut out of the solid rock by 
the Zaguean king of the same name in the twelfth century ; 
Gondar, in Amhara, the ancient capital made famous by 
the Portuguese. 

Many and fascinating are the legends and even the 
historical happenings associated with these old places, and 
even to-day the traveller can see the wonderful obelisks 
erected centuries ago at Axum by the ancient rulers of 
the land to commemorate their expeditions and victories. 
Some of the huge columns are still standing, many more > 
have fallen, but all of them bear eloquent tribute to the 
engineering skill of this old people which, many hundreds 
of years ago, without the aid of all the machinery which 
we have to-day, were able to hew out their great monoliths 
and hoist them up into position. There is scope for much 
research and excavation work at Axum; a little has been 
done by a German mission, and Mr. Theodore Bent has 
written an interesting treatise on the inscriptions he found 
there as the result of a short visit. But only the surface 
of the subject has been scratched. 

Some of the old palaces and bridges built by the 
Portuguese in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries 
near Gondar are still standing; sadly battered by time 
and neglect, but still very beautiful. 

‘The most remarkable and the least known, however, of 
all these old remains are the extraordinary churches of 
Lalibala. ‘These have, so far as I know, been visited by 
Europeans on four occasions only ; once in 1520 by Alvarez, 
to whom we owe a remarkable description of them ; twice 
by Frenchmen, and once by a German. I believe that 
another expedition was on its way when we left the country, 
but I do not know whether they were successful in getting 
there. 


General Description of the Country 35 


Lalibala, who reigned at the end of the twelfth or the 
beginning of the thirteenth century, is generally credited 
with the execution of these remarkable works, but some 
antiquarians have placed them as far back as the fifth 
century ; it is at least possible that they were begun at 
that period and gradually completed through the ages. 
The work must have been a colossal task ; the churches are 
literally hollowed out of the rock, walls, floors, ceilings, 
windows, and doorways being as perfectly shaped and 
chiselled as though built up in the ordinary way. 

Tradition relates that the design and site of these 
churches was revealed to Lalibala in a vision, and that on 
awakening from his trance he at once set to work on the 
task, which occupied twenty-four years. He caused the 
necessary tools for excavating and carving the rock to 
be forged, bought the land from its occupiers, assembled 
the people and allotted to each one his share of the under- 
taking. Angels worked with the labourers by day, and 
carried on the work alone by night, so that when the men 
came to their work in the morning they found that for 
every yard they had accomplished in the preceding day 
three yards had been done during the night by the labour 
of their invisible celestial assistants. 

A more prosaic record, however, states that the king 
caused 400 or 500 Egyptian workmen to be brought over 
from Alexandria and Jerusalem—a sufficiently formidable 
undertaking in itself, given the distance of Lalibala from 
the sea (250 miles as the crow flies) and the difficulties of 
travel in those times. 

There are in all eleven churches, although, as two of 
them are hollowed out of a single rock, the number is 
frequently given as ten. They are in two groups, one of 
six and one of four, and a single one, that of St. George, 
stands alone; they vary considerably in size and design, 
some being of a more elaborate character, and more 
delicately worked than others. 


36 General Description of the Country 


The largest and most beautiful is that of Medine-Allem, 
or the Saviour of the World, and a description of this one 
may perhaps give an idea of the nature of these con- 
structions. 

It stands in a courtyard, which is itself hollowed out of 
the rock, and is 109 feet in length by 754 feet wide: the 
walls are in places over 64 feet in thickness. It is surrounded 
externally by a number of square columns or buttresses, 
which support arches thrown from one to the other, 
meeting in a sort of vault above the top of the church. 
Inside there are five naves, each containing seven square 
columns very well worked with arches dropping a little 
below the vaulted roof, which is beautifully chiselled and 
very high. There is an altar with a canopy over it, long 
and narrow with much tracery, and several doorways 
consisting of a number of arches diminishing in size as they 
go inwards. There are also statues carved in the wall but 
standing out from it. 

Alvarez says that the tracery work is so fine that 
“neither a jeweller in silver nor a worker of wax in wax, 
could do more work.” And every part of each of 
the eleven churches is carved out of a single rock— 
walls, roof, altars, canopies, columns, statues, doorways, 
and windows—truly such a work on such a scale is 
almost worthy to rank as one of the wonders of the 
world. 

There are other monolithic churches in Abyssinia, but 
none to compare with these in size or beauty or elaboration ; 
and these and the still older obelisks of Axum are practically 
the only monuments in the country linking it with its 
remote and little known past. The inscriptions on the 
Axumite stones are particularly interesting as showing the 
connection between Abyssinia and Arabia through the 
Himyaritic writing which indicates Sabzan influence; 
further proof of this connection has been obtained during 
the present year by the excavations carried out in Tchertcher 


General Description of the Country 37 


(Southern Abyssinia) by a French expedition. This 
‘mission, under the direction of the R.P. Azais, who was 
previously engaged for nearly twenty years in missionary 
work in the country, and supported by various French 
official and learned sources, such as the Museum of the 
Louvre, and the Académie des inscriptions et belles lettres, 
left Marseilles in June, 1922, and arrived at Addis at the 
beginning of the present year after a very successful six 
months in the South. ‘They discovered inter alia some 
sixty stones in a good state of preservation, on which were 
cut Himyaritic inscriptions. I have not yet seen the 
translations of these inscriptions, but they may prove of 
great historical importance, and in any event they are 
exceedingly interesting as being the first evidence discovered 
of old-time connection between Sabza and Southern 


_ Abyssinia. 


CHAPTER III 
The Races of Abyssinia & their 


Characteristics 


N attempting to visualize the people of Abyssinia 

it is necessary to bear in mind that the inhabitants 

of the country are not one people but many peoples, 

and that these differ from each other not only in 
race, but in language, appearance, customs and religion. 
It is usual to refer loosely to the combination as Abyssinians, 
but this is misleading, as the Abyssinians properly so- 
called form but a minority of the population, probably 
about a third. 

It is, perhaps, hardly necessary to say that no official 
figures exist as to the size of the population, and although 
nearly every writer on the country has given a figure, it is 
difficult to understand on what authority these different 
estimates are based, varying as they do from four to 
thirteen millions. ‘The truth probably lies somewhere 
between the two, and from such inquiries as I was able to 
make, and such information as I was able to obtain in the 
country, I should say that from nine to ten millions was 
a probable figure. But I give it with all reserve and with 
no claim to meticulous accuracy. 

Of these numbers about one-third are, as I have said 
above, Abyssinians properly so-called. ‘They inhabit the 
provinces—lately kingdoms—of 'Tigré, Amhara, and Gojam 
in the north, and a part of Shoa in the centre; and this 
area comprises rather more than one-third of the country. 

38 


The Races of Abyssinia 39 


The major portion of the remainder of the population 
consists of various branches of the great Galla race who 


commenced their invasion of the country in the sixteenth 


century, overran a great part of it, settled there, and were 
successively subdued by subsequent kings of Abyssinia, 
until their conquest was completed by Menelik, who 
consolidated his kingdom by adding large tracts of Galla 
territory, especially in the south and south-west. 

Along the whole of the western borders are found 
tribes of negro and negroid races, generally referred to 
as Shankala; whilst along the eastern border are strung 
out the Moslem tribes that for so many years were a thorn 
in the flesh of Abyssinia, the Danakil, and the Issa and other 
Somals. Finally, to the south-east are found the Ogaden 
Somals. 

Interspersed in these main broad divisions curious 
enclaves of peoples exhibiting quite special characteristics 
are met with. Perhaps the most curious of these are the 
Falasha, a race of Jews who inhabit mainly the mountainous 
district of Semyen north of Lake Tana, and the Gourage, 
living in the country of that name some days’ march 
south-east of Addis Ababa. 

I propose to confine my remarks in the present chapter 


_ to Abyssinians, and to deal later on with the subject races 


to whom I have referred above. 
The Abyssinians themselves vary in type; for example, 


the Tigréan and the Amharan differ markedly from the 


Shoan, and to a lesser degree from each other, both in 
appearance and in characteristics. This is no doubt due 
in part, in all events, to the greater or less extent to which 
the different branches have inter-married with their 
subject races, the Galla or Shankala, and it is accordingly 
not surprising to find that the Shoan, who is more closely 
surrounded by these races than his northern brothers, is 
darker and frequently less aquiline in feature than they are. 
On the whole, however, they may be described as a 


40 The Races of Abyssinia 


fine type of man, about medium height, well-built, brown 
in colour, shading in some districts to olive. More techni- 
cally, it may be said that as a result of anthropological 
examination by various experts of a large number of indivi- 
duals, 73 per cent were found to be bronze skinned, 
13 per cent fair, and only 14 per cent dark, whilst practi- 
cally all had brown eyes and black hair. 

The characteristics of the Abyssinians have been the 
object of many bitter attacks by persons who have lived 
there, and by people who have written on the question 
without having entered the country, or after having spent 
only a very short time there. As my impressions differed 
so markedly from views of the above nature, I have cast 
around to endeavour to find some explanation for the 
antipathy shown to these people, and for what it 1s worth 
I suggest the following explanation. 

In endeavouring to form a just appreciation of their 
qualities and characteristics it is necessary not merely to 
have travelled in the country and to have mixed with the 
people, but to be armed with a certain amount of know- 
ledge of their history, and to realize the conditions under 
which they have lived in recent times. 

A certain breadth of view is also necessary, for circum- 
stances in Abyssinia are so different from those obtaining 
in other parts of Africa. An Englishman coming to the 
country from, say, a British colony, where the country 
belongs to the white, and the white man is top dog in every 
sense of the word, is faced by conditions which need a 
complete mental volte-face if he is to live there in comfort 
and in harmony with the people. The country belongs 
to the native ; he is the top dog ; all power is in his hands ; 
the white man (or the red man as they call him) is an 
immigrant. So far from having been conquered by the 
white race, he has defeated them in the open field. He 
has been shut off from progress for centuries, and he knows 
little of the white men; what he does know does not 


The Races of Abyssinia 41 


altogether redound to their credit. And, moreover, a 
poor class of so-called “ mean white” has descended on 
the country, living little better than do the natives, showing 
them no higher standards of life than their own, and under 
the guise of trade and industry endeavouring to exploit, 
if not indeed to swindle, them pretty thoroughly—never 
to develop the country. 

It is therefore not altogether surprising that the white 
man, does not always find himself regarded as the “‘ heaven- 
born ” in Abyssinia. And, on the other hand, it is also 
perhaps not surprising that he is annoyed thereby. 

They are not an easy people to get to know, and I think 
they understand our mentality as little as we generally 
understand theirs. As a result they are deeply suspicious 
of the Frangi—a suspicion based on fear and experience— 
and much of the apparent hostility they display to 
Europeans is in my view merely this suspicion. Many of 
them object to “ modernization ” and to the attempt to 
impose upon them the European’s ideals and ideas; this 
is doubtless regrettable, but it is at least understandable, 
and I am afraid I am unable to regard it as a heinous 
offence. Furthermore, they regard themselves as the equal 
of the white man, a factor which must be taken into account 
and for which allowance must be made in dealing with 
them. This is no doubt partly due to their military successes 
and to the adulation which was lavished on them after 
their victory at Adowa, when all the great European powers 
indulged in what has been referred to by a recent writer 
as “an undignified scramble” for a place in Menelik’s 
affections by sending missions and ministers laden with 
presents and drafts of treaties. In part, also, I imagine 
it to be attributable to the fact that they profess the same 
religion as that of Europe, acquired when Europeans were 
still pagans, and retained in what they believe to be an 
older and a purer form. 

In spite of this, however, I am bound to say that my 


4.2 The Races of Abyssinia 


impressions, derived during a fairly lengthy stay in- 
1919-20, and a shorter one during 1922-3, were of the 
happiest, and during the whole of our sojourn in the 
country neither my wife nor I experienced even discourtesy, 
far less hostility, from the many Abyssinians with whom 
we came in contact, high or low, either in Addis Ababa 
or during our “treks” about the country. Politeness 
and courtesy, indeed, are in my view striking characteristics 
of these people, and in this opinion I am supported by 
other travellers who had greater opportunities than I of 
putting the matter to a test. 

Mr. Wylde, who spent much time in Abyssinia on 
several occasions, and travelled on foot over a great part 
of the country, wrote in 1900: “There is no harder 
worker than the Abyssinian peasant, and no more harmless 
and hospitable person when left alone and properly treated.” 
And again, “I have been well received everywhere when 
I have travelled about without an escort.” 

And in a somewhat wild and adventurous journey from 
Zeila to Addis Ababa in 1907, Captain Bentley, who was 
very nearly murdered by Isa Somals and later by Danakil, 
had similarly fortunate experience of the Abyssinians. He 
says of some Abyssinian officers who had been sent to meet 
them: ‘They proved courteous and kindly gentlemen, 
and, indeed, throughout the whole of their stay in the 
country the party experienced both from high and low 
the same never-failing good-will and kindness.” 

They are also exceedingly polite to each other on meeting. 
Repeated bowings and ceremonious greetings take place, 
and frequently the men salute each other by a kiss on both 
cheeks, an unusual thing in Africa. In this connection 
I remember an amusing case of an intriguing foreigner 
who wished to steal a march on his European competitors 
by cultivating Abyssinian friendship in any and every way. 
On the return to Addis of the members of the Abyssinian 
Mission to Europe he went to meet them at the station, 


The Races of Abyssinia 43 


and to their surprise and to the disgust of all other 
Europeans present, he kissed them affectionately ! 

They are eminently a warlike people, mindful of their 
achievements on the field of battle, and ready to fight again 
at any time. Their martial spirit is no doubt stimulated by 
the fact that their country includes huge tracts which they 
have comparatively recently conquered, some of it still 
hardly pacified ; and it is typified by their bearing—every 
man carries a rifle and a bandolier full of cartridges at all 
times. 

Their single great defeat of modern times, viz. Lord 
Napier’s victory over King Theodore in 1868, is too long 
past to trouble them, and their victories over the Egyptians 
in 1875 and 1876, and still more so over the Italians at 
Adowa in 1896 have given them an unduly optimistic idea 
of their military powers. 

In talking to Fitarauri Hapta Giorgis, one of the late 
Emperor Menelik’s generals, and now Minister of War, this 
point of view was quite clearly brought out. He seemed to 
think that given a few more machine guns and rifles his army 
would be a match for any European forces, and he could 
not understand, in spite of our efforts at explanation, why 
we had found it necessary “‘ to dig holes in the ground and 
hide in them ” in the course of the Great War. 

But in spite of this and of the fact that they are intensely 
fearful and jealous of any encroachment on their independ- 
ence, they do not themselves desire to overrun their 
boundaries, for they are a race of highlanders, neither 
liking nor thriving in the lowlands. When their armies 
penetrated to the Nile in the attempt to join forces with 
Major Marchand, the heavy loss of life they suffered in the 
lowland climate forced them to retire; and so far from 
constituting a danger to surrounding countries it would 
appear that they are confined to their island mountains by 
the forces of Nature. 

I should describe the Abyssinians as a patriotic and 


44 The Races of Abyssinia 


intensely proud race; proud of the independent position 
they have maintained during centuries of ceaseless warfare ; 
proud of the alleged semi-divine descent of their ruling 
house, in which they believe implicitly ; proud of their 
religion, which they have preserved through I500 years 
against attacks of all descriptions. A striking example of 
this is contained in Menelik’s circular letter to the Powers 
in 1891, in which he refers to “‘ Ethiopia having been for 
more than fourteen centuries an island of Christians in the 
midst of a sea of pagans.” 

They are deeply suspicious of foreign enterprise, as por- 
tending danger in some form or other to their indepen- 
dence. They are mildly religious in their own curious way, 
observing the Church fasts and feasts with the greatest 
strictness, and showing, outwardly at all events, a consider- 
able measure of reverence to their churches and monasteries. 
They are entirely uneducated, but possess a keen sense of 
humour, are very loquacious, and are fond of litigation, in 
which they indulge freely. | 

They are great sportsmen and are exceedingly fond of 
hunting or of any sporting event, to watch which they 
will flock in their thousands. The race meetings organized 
by the Europeans at Addis are always extremely well 
patronized by the natives, and the crowd on the great plain 
on these occasions is distinctly reminiscent of Epsom—if 
you omit the rifles. 

It must not however be imagined from what I have said 
that the Abyssinians expect or would like subserviency in 
any form, or that anything of the sort would pay in dealing 
with them. Far from it—they need and respect and appre- 
ciate a strong man, a straight man, and a good sportsman—a 
man who zs a manin fact. The aspect of the 1868 expedi- 
tion Iam told which impressed them most was that Lord 
Napier actually did what he said he was going to do—neither 
more nor less—i.e. march to Magdala, free the captives, 
evacuate the country, and pay for all supplies. That he kept 


The Races of Abyssinia 4.5 


his word as regards the last-named item seemed to them 
marvellous, inasmuch as he was marching through a con- 
quered country. 

A pleasing feature of the race, and one which is almost 
universal, is their fondness for children; these are merry 
plump little things and were a great source of pleasure and 
amusement to us. My wife used to carry about sweets in 
her pockets to distribute to them, and the parents used to 
appear as pleased as the children when the latter’s shrill 
cries of “ 4baté zukar’? were rewarded with a shower of 
sticky compounds as we rode past their tukuls. They have 
a pretty habit of touching the ground with their heads by 
way of greeting, and of touching one’s feet with their heads 
as thanks for the smallest trifles in the way of gifts. 

Up to about two years old, children toddle about in the 
state they are born after a preliminary stage of being carried 
on their mothers’ backs in a sitting posture, there main- 
tained by a large square of abougedid, two of the corners ot 
which are tied round the mother’s waist and the other two 
round her neck. After two years they put on a little cotton 
chemise, and there it remains day and night until it drops 
off and is replaced by another. The children of the better 
class Abyssinians are carefully secluded, and one seldom 
comes across them ; they have nurses or slaves, to dress and 
take proper care of them. 

Abyssinians are on the whole good to their wives, a some- 
‘what surprising fact in view of the marital conditions 
obtaining which are described in another chapter. ‘They 
seem to be genuinely attached to them, and of this | may 
cite two striking examples which occurred while we were 
in Addis. One of our French friends had a head-man whom 
_ he regarded as a paragon among servants, and who was happy, 
contented, well-treated, and well-paid. His wife became 
seriously ill and her life was despaired of. One night when 
at dinner our friend was disturbed by a rifle shot in the 
house, and rushing out of the room found that his servant 


46 The Races of Abyssinia 


' 


had shot himself through the head by pulling the trigger of 


his rifle with his toe; he had just previously told several — 


people that his wife was dying and that he could not live 
without her. 

The other case was in our own household. One of our per- 
sonal “‘ boys,” a most admirable servant, was deserted by his 
wife,who elected to transfer her affections to another member 
of our staff and was hidden away by him. ‘This so affected 
our man that he became ill and wretched, threw up his post, 
and after a fruitless search for the guilty pair with a rifle, 
disappeared into his own country many days’ journey away. 

Although bribery and baksheesh certainly exist as elsewhere 
in the east, I disagree with the conclusion which several 


writers on the country have come to, i.e. that the Abyssin- 


iaNs are an avaricious and money-craving nation, and that 
anything can be obtained from them if sufficient dollars 
are forthcoming. I could tell of several cases where, to my 
personal knowledge, justly earned monetary presents have 
been declined by men in a good position, who have appar- 
ently been glad to render service through friendliness or 
courtesy. I have also known cases where no amount of 
dollars would induce an Abyssinian in poor circumstances 
to part with a thing that he desired to keep. 

Apart from their incorrigible wastefulness they make 
admirable servants, and we found them scrupulously honest. 
We had a good deal in the way of silver and other household 
valuables when we were in Addis, and though we never kept 
anything under lock and key and had as many as 30 or 35 
indoor and outdoor servants, we did not lose so much as a 
saltspoon during the whole of our stay. 

I have dwelt at some length upon this point because I 
have found other writers dealing very harshly with the 
people of this country from almost every point of view, and 
finding few, if any, redeeming points amongst them. Pos- 
sibly this may be due to their being travellers passing 
through, and not residents. Possibly also things may have 


The Races of Abyssinia 47 


changed since they wrote. But in any case I can only speak 
of the people as I found them, and I am bound to differ 
strongly from those who would condemn the Abyssinian as 
the possessor of all the vices and none of the virtues. 

On the other hand, I do not by any means desire to hold 
up the Abyssinian as a model for all and sundry to copy ; 
obviously he has his faults, which, as might be expected, 
are mainly Oriental in character. For example, they are 
markedly cruel, especially to animals, of which I have seen 
dreadful examples, and their punishments are attended with 
circumstances of almost barbarous cruelty. But even here 
it may be pointed out that it is not necessary to go to Africa 
to look for cruelty, when we are obliged to support by 
public subscription at home Societies for the Prevention 
of Cruelty to Animals, and even to Children. 

They cannot be described as industrious ; apart from the 
peasant (especially in the North) who is a worker, they take 
more kindly to carrying a rifle than to manual labour. 
There are large numbers of soldiery attached to every Chief 
and Governor, and these men have been described by Mr. 
Wylde as “ truculent, worthless, lazy, conceited, and useless 
individuals.” ‘Though this is perhaps rather strong it con- 
tains germs of truth, as these people are merely the hangers- 
on of some chieftain, and their sole job in peace time is to 
swell their master’s retinue and lend an air of dignity to him 
when he goes abroad. 

Unfortunately the lower classes have little or no idea of 
morality; brothels and drinking dens are plentifully 
sprinkled about the towns, and appear to be well frequented. 
Probably owing to this and to the filth of their surroundings 
and of some of their habits, venereal and dirt diseases are 
very prevalent. 

Cases of small-pox are still fairly numerous ; from time 
to time one comes across a case of a man suffering from this 
illness lying at the side of the high road covered with a dirty 
piece of cotton sheeting taking a sun-cure ; but thanks to 


c 


4.8 The Races of Abyssinia 


vaccination, which has become recognised and appreciated 
by the natives, small-pox is less met with than formerly. 

Leprosy is very prevalent, as in all eastern countries, and 
it is greatly to be regretted that these poor remnants of 
humanity are not confined in compounds instead of being 
allowed to wander about at will; as it is, these unfortunates 
are found all over the town and especially outside the 
churches, where they beg for charity. They are great beg- 
gars, and when the disease gets too bad for them to walk 
they procure old ponies and ride from house to house 
soliciting alms. In this connection it is related that a well- 
known Greek, not a connoisseur of horse-flesh, bought a 
pony, and was surprised to find it continually stopping at 
houses en route. Inquiry elicited the fact that it had 
originally belonged to a leper, and had so acquired its habit 
of house to house visits ! 

Blindness is also very common, or So it appears to a new- 
comer to the capital. I do not know the real reason of this, 
but am told it is due in part to the flies carrying the germ of 
opthalmia from one to the other, and through ignorance or 
neglect of the most ordinary precautions the sight becomes 
impaired. 

Abyssinians, like most African peoples, have a great dread 
of sickness, and should they become ill very often succumb, 
where with a little courage they might have pulled through. 
But on commencing to suffer they immediately think their 
end has come and give up all hope of recovery. Thanks 
however to the very healthy position of Addis Ababa, 
epidemics have so far rarely occurred there with the excep- 
tion of the Spanish “ Flu” which affected the whole world 
and particularly Africa in 1918. Abyssinia at that time 
suffered perhaps more than its share of this virulent illness 
and the victims in Addis Ababa died like flies. A fair 
number of Europeans also succumbed, amongst them four 
doctors, who worked day and night most valiantly fighting 
the disease. 


The Races of Abyssinia 49 


Unless something can be done to improve the habits and 
sonditions of these people, it is to be feared that in the 
-ourse of time the Ethiopian race may gradually die out. 
families are small; mortality is high; and though no 
igures are available it is obvious that the death-rate must 
»xceed the birth-rate by a considerable margin. It is inter- 
sting to note in this connection that Abyssinians who have 
issociated as servants or otherwise with Europeans show 
narked improvement in their habits and cleanliness. 

Their mental attributes are more difficult to gauge. 
ometimes one is inclined to regard them as exceedingly 
ible, at other times they seem to lack the very elements of 
yrain power and be incapable of understanding the simplest 
sroposition put to them ; on the whole I think they may be 
aid to be a remarkable combination of astuteness and 
hildishness, attributable no doubt in part to the medley 
of conflicting conditions in which they live and have their 
reing. 

Among minor attributes may be cited their fondness for 
lowers, especially roses, of which they may often be seen 
arrying a specimen. ‘This may possibly be due to the fact 
hat a variety of the rose, Rosa Sancta, was formerly con- 
tected with religious worship, at all events in Tigré where 
t was grown round the churches, and the petals used by 
sriests to mix with incense. ‘This particular kind of rose 
3 stated to have been found in Egyptian tombs. 


CHAPTER IV 


The Races of Abyssinia & their 
Characteristics—(conzd..) 


HE Galla are by far the most numerous of the 

races found in Abyssinia, outnumbering all the 

others combined, and inhabiting great areas 

over which they spread when they swarmed into 

the country after the great Moslem invasion of the early 
sixteenth century. ‘hey are supposed to have appeared 
on the southern frontiers first of all in 1542, but their origin 
is obscure. There is much diversity of opinion among 
writers on the subject; they appear, however, to be a 
distinct race, Hamitic in source, now split up into branches 
differing from each other considerably though speaking 
a single language, and to have originated according to 
their traditions from ‘“‘ across the waters.” Whether 
“across the waters”? means across the Red Sea, or, as is 
more probable, across the great lakes of equatorial Africa, is 
still a subject of controversy, into the merits of which 
I do not propose to enter here. One theory is that coming 
originally from Arabia in the far distant past, they crossed 
into British East Africa, migrated south-west to the great 
lakes and from there drove north into Abyssinia through 
Borana. | 
Be that as it may, they poured into an enfeebled and de- 
vastated country, and though internal dissensions among 
their different branches prevented their conquest of the 
whole country, they ravaged, pillaged, and burned enormous 

50 


The Races of Abyssinia 51 


areas, destroying countless treasures contained in the 
churches and monasteries, and invaluable and irreplaceable 
old manuscripts. 

Driven back from the central plateaux they settled 
mainly on the southern and western districts, although 
a wedge was driven right through Shoa across to the east, 
and some of them—the Taltal, Azibu, Yedjow, and Wollo 
Galla—are found strung out along the eastern borders 
between Abyssinia proper and the Afar desert coast line. 

They are a pastoral people, industrious and hard-working, 
but possessing also markedly warlike qualities. They were 

only finally subdued by the Emperor Menelik thanks to 
the arms and ammunition with which he was so plentifully 
‘supplied by the French, and even since then there have been 
frequent risings, and the different tribes still indulge 
‘in spasmodic fighting with each other and with their 
neighbours. 

When we were in the Arussi Galla country during the 
‘present year we could see from our camp south of Lake 
Zwai the sky at night bright with the reflected light of 
the burning villages and crops in the fighting zone, and I 
am told that during the last six years no less than 5000 men 
have been killed in the desultory fighting that goes on 
periodically between the Arussi Galla and. their neighbours 
of Gourage. A punitive expedition had to be sent into 
‘the Gona country (bordering on Arussi) a few years ago, 
and the people were fined 20,000 to 30,000 head of cattle ; 
this, I believe, caused the bellicose people to keep their 
fighting within their own country. In any case, however, 
they do not interfere with Europeans or other outsiders, 
and their fighting seems to be rather Irish in character, 
something in the nature of a national amusement. 

_ The Galla are on the whole darker than the Abyssinians, 
less advanced, and much less attractive. In Shoa they are 
tess clearly distinguishable from their conquerors, but 
further away from the capital they become more and more 


52 The Races of Abyssinia 


savage, both in appearance and in habits, especially amongst 
the pagan branches. 

In Gille we come across some of the filthiest Galla I 
have ever seen; they were very black in colour, their clothes 
were black—even their cattle and donkeys were black. ‘They 
lived in primitive reed huts, surrounded by a small zareba 
about fifty feet across, into which all their cattle—they 
owned quite a lot—were driven at night for protection. 
The filth and the smell of this place were beyond descrip- 
tion, but the sun is a great purifier, and it is mainly on 
that account I suppose that they appear to suffer no ill- 
effects from their surroundings. ‘The aroma drove us 
rapidly outside, and we regretted our enforced retreat the 
less that these folk were very timid and would not let us 
photograph them ; they took refuge inside their wretched 
hovels, and it would have needed greater courage and 
stronger stomachs than we possessed to join them inside. 

The Arussi Galla show perhaps the purest race-type, 
and very remarkable people we found them. They are 
undoubtedly wealthy, for in the north we passed through 
huge cultivated areas almost continuously, and in the 
south enormous herds of cattle, many horses and goats, 
and some sheep. But the gabar system, which is described 
elsewhere, presses heavily on them, though to a less extent 
than in the poorer districts, such, for example, as Gourage. 

Nevertheless, their clothing is of the scantiest and most 
primitive description. ‘The men wear, in addition to a 
filthy loin-cloth, either a half-tanned skin over their 
shoulders or a piece of cotton sheeting wrapped round 
them. ‘This piece of material is, when bought, dipped 
into melted butter, and from that day until it literally de- 
materializes it is never washed. ‘The filthy appearance 
and the smell of it are almost overpowering, and when we 
happened to have a group of these people near us we found 
it preferable to stand to windward of them and to indulge 
in our strongest tobacco. 


The Races of Abyssinia 53 


The women generally wear skins ; one as a sort of petti- 
coat and another thrown over the shoulders. But they 
make up for the inelegance and inadequacy of this part of 
their raiment by a very large number of rings, bracelets, 
and necklets of brass and copper, more rarely of ivory, 
with which they literally cover themselves. 

They seem to eat anything of any sort that they can 
lay their hands on, no matter how revolting it may appear. 
One day when we were in camp south of Lake Zwai I had 
had an ox killed for my men, and, of course, some Gallas 
collected near the camp to pick up anything that might 
be going. Strolling down to the lake to shoot something 
for the “ pot ” I passed one of these men squatting on the 
ground, his filthy rags pulled round him and his spear on 
the ground, busily engaged tearing with hands and teeth 
at the raw entrails (including the bowel) of the ox we had 
just killed—it was really one of the most repulsive sights 
I have seen. 

Some of them—a distinct branch—are known as 
“hippopotamus eaters,” the icthiopagi of the ancients, no 
doubt, and as their name indicated, they hunt and feed 
on the flesh of these animals. They are regarded with 
profound contempt by the Abyssinians as eaters of unclean 
food, and certainly those that came into camp to offer to 
guide us to the haunts of the hippopotamus seemed of a 
more debased type than the other tribes, the filth of their 
persons and the aroma shed around them being more than 
usually exhilarating. 

Others live by fishing on the lakes—Zwai and others— 
and the craft they use for the purpose are really astonishing. 
They consist of long thick reeds lashed together and brought 
into a point at either end, the thin ends of the reeds 
forming the bow and the thick ends the stern. In the 
middle of this contrivance are two small recesses, in one of 
which the fisherman sits and plies his paddle and in the 
other stores his net and the fish he catches. ‘The boat 


54 The Races of Abyssinia 


does not float on but in the water, and at all events has the 
merit of keeping the fisherman cool and the fish fresh— 
but a more uncomfortable and perilous form of transport 
can hardly be imagined. Fortunately, though there are 
hippopotami in Zwai there are no crocodiles, but even so, 
I was not extraordinarily disappointed when my fisherman 
friend refused to lend me his boat for a trip. 

Their customs and superstitions alone would fill a book, 
but I will confine myself to describing one or two only of 
the more interesting. 

Among these is their curious method of giving and 
collecting wedding presents on the occasion of a marriage. 
When a young man wishes to marry, his father has to 
distribute presents, such as goats, etc., among all his 
relations in order to obtain their consent, and very par- 
ticular they are as to the quality of these donations—there 
is no absurd diffidence as to ‘‘ looking the gift-horse (or 
rather goat) in the mouth.” This formality takes place 
when the bride-elect is a child ; when she reaches the age 
of thirteen or fourteen the date of the wedding is fixed, 
and the girl’s father goes round amongst all his friends to 
the number of perhaps fifty or sixty, ear-marking (but 
not yet taking) the presents which, when received, will go 
with the girl as a kind of dowry. Subsequently he describes 
all these animals in detail to a servant (e.g. So-and-so’s 
black goat with a white blaze, a scar on the near fore-quarter 
and a white near hind leg), and the servant goes round to 
collect the “ gifts”? ; apparently mistakes are hardly ever 
made, as they have wonderful memories. Of course, the 
father, in selecting his presents, has to bear in mind that 
his friends will descend on him in due course for their 
daughters’ dowries, and so no doubt he exercises his choice 
with discretion. 

It is, accordingly, perhaps not surprising that girl babies 
are not appreciated, and are not infrequently put out in 
the forest for the hyenas to dispose of. But on the other 


The Races of Abyssinia 66 


hand, if a wife runs away from her husband and has a 
child by another man, her lawful spouse can claim it as his 
own, and, in fact, frequently does if it is a boy. 

Their tombs are curious; if the person to be buried is 
a chief or important personage his grave and that of his 
family is generally surrounded by a stone wall, and a large 
stone, decorated in some way, 1s placed outside the 
enclosure. One of those that I saw, a very old one, was 
decorated with an extraordinarily primitive design of what 
was intended to be a man, cut or scratched into the stone. 
Another, of more recent date, was ornamented with stripes 
of red and white, made by rubbing red and white stones 
brought from a considerable distance on the grey stone 
forming the pillar. 

A trophy is generally erected in such cases; I came 
across two in the bush. One consisted of pieces of material 
and old baskets to the number of eight or nine hung on a 
tree; the other, of over twenty pieces of red and white 
cloth fastened on a branch fixed to two high posts. The 
number of baskets or pieces of cloth represents the number 
of men killed by the defunct warrior, and to these is some- 
times added the number of elephants or lions killed. It 
counts, I believe, rather more to one’s credit to have slain 
either of these kinds of beasts, as they are worthier game 
and harder to kill than a mere man. 

They have a quaint superstition as to the powers of a 
small bird which they believe perches on any tree under 
which a boa or other large snake may be coiled, and which 
makes a continuous loud chirruping noise in order to 
guide the hunter to the spot. It 1s certainly true that this 
bird was being very voluble one morning near a spot 
where some of my men, in looking for wood for the camp 
fire, tumbled on a boa, and incidentally ran like rabbits 
backto camp. I called for volunteers to guide me to the 
place later on, and was told that they would all come—if 
I went first. But the snake had disappeared when we got 


56 The Races of Abyssinia 


there. They also believe in this bird as an omen; for 
example, if when a man is starting on a journey he hears 
this creature on his left, he is certain to be successful in 
whatever he is setting out to do. If the noise comes from 
his right, his success is unlikely, but if the noise comes 
from behind, he will turn back, as otherwise he will suffer 
disaster. A similar bird is said (with some truth, I believe) 
to act as a guide to wild bees’ hives. 

We had difficulties in getting supplies in some districts, 
especially south-west of Lake Zwai, and had it not been for 
the ducks and guinea-fowl we were able to shoot we should 
have gone to bed hungry occasionally. ‘The natives were 
very wild in those parts and could hardly be persuaded to 
come near us; they seemed terrified of our Abyssinian 
escort (who, incidentally, always went out in twos and 
threes, never alone, and never unarmed), and on one 
occasion were induced to come into the camp only “if 
the Frangi was there,’ an unsolicited testimonial which 
our desire for milk and eggs made us appreciate immensely. 

These particular people could hardly be brought to do 
business on account of their inability to take their eyes 
off my wife, whom they apparently regarded as an extra- 
ordinary phenomenon, especially after she had, with a 
fairly long shot, bagged a crocodile which was sunning 
itself on a log in the river. I suppose they must have seen 
- white men before, though possibly not a white woman, but 
they had certainly never seen matches, for when we offered 
them a box they looked blankly at it, and when we struck 
a match to show them its advantages, they refused the gift 
with emphasis and retired hastily into the bush. 

Incidentally, they were very difficult to photograph, 
unlike the Abyssinians, who love to pose before the 
camera. 

The Shoan Galla are less interesting than the Arussi, 
mainly because they are less wild, and being Christianized 
have lost their old pagan customs and practices. ‘Their 


A YOUNG WOMAN OF THE ARussI GALLA. 


The clothing consists merely of roughly-dressed skins, and contrasts markedly with the wealth 
of brass and copper ornaments affected. 


*< 


at 


The Races of Abyssinia 57 


proximity to Addis Ababa has, moreover, tended to 
assimilate them more with their Abyssinian conquerors 
through inter-marriage and intercourse. But the many 
other branches of the Galla race, pagan, Moslem, and 
Christian, would afford an extremely interesting subject 
to explore, and one which has never been undertaken 
comprehensively, though works on individual branches of 
the race have been produced. 

The Gourage are a curious example of a racial 
“enclave,” presenting quite special features of their 
own, though surrounded by a totally different race. They 
are lighter in colour than most other inhabitants of 
the country, and have fine features, sometimes almost 
European in character: the women especially are quite 
handsome. They live in a very mountainous district, and 
though they are hard workers they are not apparently 
wealthy, as for example their neighbours, the Arussi, 
seem to be. They come up to Addis Ababa to act as 
porters and manual labourers—‘‘ hewers of wood and 
drawers of water ”’ in fact—where they are to be seen every 
day, clad in a loin-cloth and a sheep-skin, carrying bales of 
hides and cotton goods, and working on the roads. Every 
household is compelled to employ one or more of them 
to do the dirty work for the Abyssinian servants, dig the 
garden, carry water, etc. So much have they become 
associated with the idea of manual labour in people’s minds 
that their very name has come to be used as synonymous 
with “porter.” And anyone wanting men for work has 
only to go into the street and shout “ Gourage—Gourage,” 
for a number of these useful individuals to appear. 

There is a curious legend prevalent in their country 
to the effect that they are the descendants of a colony of 
European slaves planted there by the rulers of Egypt 
many centuries ago in order to work Egyptian copper 
mines which existed in that district. Whether this be true 
or not, the fact remains that their system of irrigation 


58 The Races of Abyssinia 


and water-wheels differs markedly from that in use in the 
rest of the country, and is not unlike the system used in 
Ancient Egypt. On the other hand, some indications point 
to their having emigrated from Tigré, but I confess that 
this does not seem very probable. 

Yet another people, which like the Gourage, and 
perhaps to an even more striking extent, form an isolated 
unit surrounded by totally different elements, are the 
Falasha. As in the case of most of the peoples of Abyssinia 
their origin is obscure. Stern describes them as “ that 
remnant of Israel,” but later investigation would appear 
to indicate that they are not Jews racially, and that they 
are not even Semites; certainly they have no knowledge 
of Hebrew nor of the Talmud. They probably belong to 
the proto-Semitic family, which includes the Egyptians, 
Berbers, Bejas, etc., and at some remote date unknown 
invaded the North of Abyssinia. They were driven back 
and confined mainly in Semyen, though another race to 
which they are akin, and whose language they speak, the 
Agows, are found also in Lasta and Agoumeder. Up till 
comparatively modern times they had their own kings and 
queens, and were frequently at war with the Abyssinian 
monarchs; they even seized the throne and held it for 
some forty years, as narrated elsewhere. 

They still practise the Jewish religion, and from this 
fact has no doubt arisen, wrongly, the idea of their having 
been a Jewish colony. It is more likely, however, that 
being of a different race to the Abyssinians they merely 
retained their religion with their partial autonomy when 
the former became Christianized, prior to which, it must 
be borne in mind, that Judaism was the religion of Abyssinia. 
They are an industrious race, skilled in the working of iron, 
and disliked and regarded with suspicion by the Abyssinians 
as being possessed of certain supernatural powers, such, 
for example, as the ability to convert themselves into 
hyenas or wolves. They have not, however, for a very 


The Races of Abyssinia 59 


lengthy period played any part in the story of the country, 
and they do not leave their remote and inaccessible 
mountains, which include some of the highest peaks in 
the country. 

The Danakil and Somali are both nomadic peoples, 
of Hamitic origin, and may be described as tributary races. 
They have been a thorn in the flesh of Ethiopia for many 
centuries, and from the districts inhabited by them 
(notably the Afar country and Harrar) started the waves 
of Moslem aggression that so nearly engulfed Abyssinia 
in the sixteenth century. Up to very recent times they 
have given endless trouble, and even to-day certain districts 
inhabited by them can hardly be regarded as completely 
pacified. ‘hey caused great difficulties during the pre- 
liminary stages of the construction of the railway, and 
many are the little crosses which mark the graves of the 
pioneers who fell victims to these savages. Fortunately 
they possess no firearms, and consequently they now 
constitute no serious menace to law or order. But they 
are sufficiently formidable individuals, the Danakil and 
Issa Somali at all events, fine types of savages, with their 
long businesslike spears and murderous-looking knives 
from which they are never parted. The men are finely 
built and the women good-looking, scantily clothed, but 
plentifully bedecked with copper bracelets and other 
ornaments made of wire pilfered from the railway line. 

Burton describes the Issa Somals as “‘ Childish and docile, 
kind and fickle, good-humoured and irascible, warm- 
hearted and infamous for cruelty and treachery ”—a 
verdict heartily endorsed by Major Rayne in his book on 
the subject. It may be added that the Danakil closely 
resemble them. 

As in the case of all nomadic peoples their wealth lies 
in their herds and flocks, of which they possess vast quanti- 
ties; these being always on the move, I was told that 
collecting the annual taxes from them was no easy task, 


60 The Races of Abyssinia 


and necessitated methods of a nature which would shock 
Somerset House. 

The last of the races of Abyssinia on which I will touch 
are the Shankala, a term loosely used to describe the 
various negro or negroid races stretched out along the 
western borders. ‘These various races do not differ in any 
marked degree from the other similar Africans in that 
part of the Continent. They have, however, played a not 
altogether inconspicuous part in modifying the Abyssinian 
race type. For, as the result of having been conquered 
and reconquered through the ages, and of having formed 
a sort of reservoir for the supply of slaves for their masters, 
enormous numbers of them have been brought into the 
country, and the result of this admixture with their 
conquerors is seen in their deviation from the original 
Semitic-Hamitic type by darkening of colour and coarsening 
of feature. 

Their numbers have been greatly reduced by oppression 
in the past, and it is practically impossible to say to-day, 
even approximately, how many of these folk exist. 


CHAPTER V 
Customs & Practices 


HERE are many customs and practices amongst 

the Abyssinians which differentiate them sharply 

from most of the other peoples of Africa, and 

not the least interesting of these are clearly 
traceable to their ancient connection with Israel, of which 
they speak with pride in their old records. 

For example, much of their religious pageantry, which 
is described in detail elsewhere, is undoubtedly a remarkable 
survival of rites which must have been introduced by the 
earliest Jewish arrivals, such as the Dance of the Priests, 
their ceremonies connected with the Tabot, and many 
others. Similarly, their method of slaughtering cattle for 
food, the division of animals into clean and unclean, etc., 
are all indications pointing in the same direction. 

Their dislike of Jews to-day is accordingly the more 
remarkable, and must be due to the sanguinary wars which 
took place from the fourth to the tenth centuries between 
the newly-converted Christians and those who remained 
Jews. 

Among other customs which are peculiar and interesting, 
pride of place must surely be given to their fondness for 
raw meat or broundo. This form of diet is preferred to 
any other by the mass of the population, and indeed by 
practically all sections thereof, beef being liked better 
than mutton. 

When we were on trek our men could be given no 
greater treat than an ox, and within an hour of the purchase 

61 


62 Customs & Practices 


of the animal it was killed, skinned, cut into joints and 
divided amongst the tents, and our followers were busy 
gorging themselves on the still warm flesh. What the 
twenty men could not eat in the day was never cooked, 
but was cut into long thin strips and hung on ropes to 
dry in the sun and wind for the morrow’s meal—a tempting 
bait for the vultures, hawks, and carrion crows that used 
to collect in their hundreds and make frantic dives for 
the tempting morsels, occasionally picking up a piece from 
the line in their claws to the intense disgust of the men. 
It was fascinating to watch the daring swoops and dips 
of the circling birds, and so reckless did they become that 
one day whilst we were at lunch a hawk, baulked of his 
craving for raw meat by the watchfulness of its guardians, 
actually swooped down on our luncheon table and snatched 
from the plate on my wife’s knees the wing of a duck that 
she was about to operate on, brushing her face and knocking 
her knife out of her hand with his powerful wings; and 
at the same moment another bird lifted a cutlet from a 
dish which our “ boy ” was carrying from the cook’s tent 
to our table. The ‘“ boy’s” expression of indignation and 
helplessness was most comical to watch. 

But to revert to the practice of eating raw meat. Early 
travellers to Abyssinia have not only commented on this, 
but have gone even further, and have stated that meat is 
cut and eaten from the living animal. Bruce describes 
two separate and distinct instances of this practice, which 
he stated occured frequently. ‘The first was that of three 
soldiers whom he saw driving along a cow, and on arriving 
at a halting-place they tied it, threw it down, cut steaks 
from it which they devoured rapidly, and then drove the 
cow on again, plastering up the wound with mud. The 
second (which is given with a wealth of detail too revolting 
to repeat) was at a regular banquet at which a live cow was 
brought in and strips cut from it by all the guests until 
the animal died, which took some time. 


Customs & Practices 63 


Salt states that Pearce actually saw an example of the 
first instance quoted above, which he says is by no means 
uncommon, but he disbelieves the second instance. No 
other writer that I am acquainted with recounts any such 
instance of his own knowledge, and the suggestion that such a 
practice ever existed is hotly denied in the country. Nor 
could I find any evidence of the existence of such a habit 
either as to the present or the past. Personally I am inclined 
to disbelieve the stories or to regard them as gross exaggera- 
tions, or possibly as isolated instances. 

Be that as it may, the raw meat dietary, however, 1s 
undoubtedly very popular to-day, and it may be of interest 
if I give an extract from my diary describing a great 
Gebbur, or banquet given at the Feast of Maskal, which 
we attended, and at which no fewer than 15,000 soldiers 
and 2000 or 3000 palace retainers were fed in four relays 
in the great hall. 


Tue GEBBUR 


“We were received by the Court Chamberlain on the 
large stone terrace outside the aderatch, and after a short 
interval led through rooms wrapped in darkness to the 
banqueting hall, at one end of which was a large raised 
platform shut in by closely drawn white curtains. Here, 
seated on a dais, was the Empress, surrounded by Abyssinian 
notables, and after paying our respects to Her Majesty, 
Ras T'afari, and others, we were conducted to the table 
prepared for Europeans on one side of the platform—there 
were about fifteen of us. At the opposite side of the 
platform the Ras and the principal chiefs sat down at 
another table, whilst in the middle green silk curtains were 
drawn round the Empress’ dais, so that she should be 
hidden from the vulgar eye whilst eating; a constant 
stream of attendants bearing every conceivable kind of 
receptacle, from beautifully wrought gold dishes to 
enamelled iron mugs, passed in and out of her little tent. 


64. Customs & Practices 


“‘ After we had had an excellent, if somewhat lengthy, 
meal, consisting of a mixed assortment of European and 
Abyssinian courses, the white curtains by which the plat- 
form was shut in were pulled back, showing the hall packed 
with long low tables as closely as they could be got in, 
the tables being covered with slabs of Abyssinian bread 
enclosing quantities of cooked cut-up meat. 

“’To the sound of bugles and trumpets the main doors 
were opened and in poured the chiefs with their soldiery, 
who had come up to Addis Ababa for the feast from all over 
the country; the organization was admirable, and though 
some 5000 men filled the hall there was no sort of scrambling 
or disorder whatever. 

“'They set to work at once on the hors-d’auvres, and 
then the piéces de résistance arrived. Hundreds of pairs 
of men came in, each pair carrying between them a long 
stout pole, from which hung huge pieces of red raw meat, 
covered with strips of red and gold cloth. 

*“‘’These men stood closely together all along the tables 
and one on each side, so that the meat hung down from the 
poles over the tables just in front of the diners. ‘The guests 
produced knives, and feeling the joint with their fingers 
to pick out a tender bit, rapidly sliced off strips of meat, 
which they put into their mouths, cutting off what would 
not go in quite close to their lips, an operation which, from 
personal experience, I know demands great skill if one’s 
nose is not to suffer—as the cut is always made 
upwards. 

“‘ After ample libations of te7 and araki (native mead, 
or hydromel and spirit) the diners filed out in perfect order, 
and the stage was cleared for the next party. 

“‘’The whole function had lasted nearly four hours and 
the Ras must have been heartily glad when it was over, 
for he had previously dined one instalment of 5000 warriors, 
and two more were to follow—between 17,000 and 18,000 
in all partaking of the royal hospitality.” 


H.H. WAIZERU MENIN. 


The wife of H.H. Ras Tafari, wearing the national dress of gossamer-like Chamma, spun and woven 
in the palace from native grown cotton, with silk embroidered border. 
THE GREAT GEBBUR, OR RAW MEAT BANQUET. 


A small section (probably about one tenth) of the huge hall where five thousand men at a time 
partake of the Royal hospitality of broundo (raw meat). [Photograpg} by M. Bertolant.] 


Customs & Practices 65 


Broundo may be a nourishing form of diet tending to the 
development of warlike qualities, but its consumption has 
one serious drawback at all events, in that it is the cause 
of taenia (or tapeworm), a disease which is almost universal] 
in the country. So much is this the case indeed that it is 
a recognized practice for all, high and low, to take monthly 
as a “ taenicide ” a dose of a plant known as housso, which 
is so violent in its effects as to incapacitate the patient 
from work or occupation for the day. 

Christians will not touch meat unless it is killed by one 
of themselves, nor will Moslems eat any which has been 
killed by a Christian. We had one Moslem with us when 
we were on trek, and as he would not eat the ox which my 
other men had killed he bought a whole sheep for himself, 
and killed and ate it himself; none of the other men would 
touch an atom of it, even when their own supply ran out 
and they had no meat at all. 

Of course the comparatively high price of meat (for an 
Abyssinian) prevents the too frequent consumption of 
broundo amongst the people, and their tastes in every-day 
food are simple. Bread is their mainstay. This is found in 
many varieties ; some of it soft, slightly sour in taste, and 
pale brown in colour; the most popular is of flour made from 
teff or millet seed, mixed to a thick paste with water and then 
poured into a large rough slightly concave iron receptacle 
and cooked over an open fire, without grease or fat of any 
kind. When finished this bread takes the form and aspect of 
large pancakes, twelve to eighteen inches in diameter, and is 
very good, especially when eaten with jam or butter; we 
always ate it ourselves when on trek. The native eats with 
it a kind of mash of lentils or dried peas, ground and cooked, 
and mixed with butter and a very hot red sauce which is 
produced from the chili; this latter is very widely culti- 
vated in several varieties all over the country. 

The amount of pepper that is put into their cooked dishes 


is as a rule disastrous to the European palate at the first 
E 


66 Customs & Practices 


time of trying, and how they can swallow the fiery com- 
pounds that they do passes my comprehension—their 
tongues and palates must be made of leather. 

All food, including meat, is eaten with the fingers amongst 
all classes, a piece of bread being broken off, wrapped round 
the portion of other food-stuff to be eaten, and the whole 
put bodily into the mouth. 

I happened on one occasion to call on an Abyssinian 
chieftain, a ruler of a distant province who was visiting 
Addis and who was a particul.r friend of mine, just as he 
was sitting down to a late lunch in his tukul surrounded by 
his principal vassal chiefs. I had to sit down on the divan 
next to him; and as he was of course eating d  Abyssine his 
cook kept on rolling up succulent morsels of teriffically hot 
curry or stewed meat or raw flesh in bread with his fingers, 
and pressing them on my jaded palate. Any of his chiefs 
whom he desired to honour was similarly distinguished, that 
is to say, he would select a tit-bit, give it to the cook who 
doctored it up and passed it to a slave, who conveyed it to 
the fortunate recipient, who ate it with great gusto. And 
fingers all round all the time ! 

Except for some few individuals who have acquired the 
habit in Europe or from Europeans, smoking, curiously 
enough, is practically non-existent among Abyssinians 
although the tobacco plant grows freely, and the Gallas 
make a sort of rough coarse tobacco which is possible,though 
hardly pleasant. ‘The practice was somewhat drastically 
discouraged by the late Emperor Johannes (Theodore’s 
successor), who is said to have punished smoking by 
cutting off the offender’s lips, and snuffing by removing his 
nose. I was unsuccessful in ascertaining the cause of their 
objection to smoking, one of the various obviously 
inadequate reasons being that the use of tobacco was con- 
demned because the plant was supposed to have grown 
originally out of the tomb of the heretic Arius! A more 
probable explanation is that the practice was regarded as a 


Customs & Practices 67 


Moslem one and was accordingly originally condemned by 
the Church. 

On the other hand they make up for this privation by a 
pretty free indulgence in their own home-made hydromel 
(te7), beer (talla), and spirits (araki), and also in fearsome 
alcoholic preparations distilled by some of the small Greek 
traders in Addis. 

Tej, their principal drink, is home-made by nearly every 
family ; this is manufactured from honey which is to be 
found in great quantities in most parts of Abyssinia, and is 
fermented by means of an evergreen plant called guecho or 
geshu. When well-made and matured it is a very pleasant 
beverage ; to the native it is an intoxicant, and during the 
feast days one meets many who have partaken well but not 
too wisely of it. 

As the people are Christians they are of course monogo- 
mists, but though they have only one wife at a time, they 
often have, unfortunately for the race, many wives one 
after the other, and as a natural corollary the women have a 
series of husbands. ‘This is due to their appallingly lax 
marriage laws and to the ridiculous facilities for divorce, 
advantages which do not apply to the Gallas who “ enjoy ” 
two or three or more wives at a time, but then they are not 
Christians. 

Marriage amongst the Abyssinians exists in three forms. 
Firstly, the man selects a bride and without any form of 
ceremony they live together, he supplying her with small 
amounts of money in addition to a home and the necessaries 
of life, and when either of them so desires they come to a 
mutual agreement and separate as easily as they united. 

Secondly, there is the civil marriage. In this case there is 
a contract made before the Shum (or “* Mayor ”’) when the 
properties of the would-be bride and bridegroom are speci- 
fied, and an arrangement is made as to division in case of 
divorce, though usually they agree to divide things equally. 
In the event of divorce this division is carried out to the 


68 Customs ¢7 Practices 


letter, and should there, for example, be amongst other 
things only one cooking pot, this is halved. When a woman 
has been ‘‘ married” and divorced in this manner two or 
three times she is considered rather a “‘ catch,” on account 
perhaps of her worldly possessions which she has acquired 
from her previous matrimonial ventures. ‘Then if she does 
not retire from the world and become a kind of nun she 
often indulges in the third form of marriage, a solemn 
religious ceremony which is really binding ; it is as a general 
rule confined to the better class of Abyssinians. 

Women, some of whom are attractive and even pretty, 
have, speaking generally, little or no position. ‘There are 
of course exceptions to this rule, and I have known cases 
where a wife has by her influence over her husband acquired 
a certain status for herself. But this is rare, and by a 
general though not universal rule women are even supposed 
to eat separately. 

Nevertheless the higher-class woman manages to hold her 
own, and if badly treated by her husband has the right of 
appeal to the Church. And so far as I can gather the woman 
of any class can divorce her husband as easily as he can 
divorce her, which gives her a certain protection in itself. 

In spite of the facility of divorce—possibly to some extent 
because of the mutual power to exercise it—the lot of 
women is not at all what one might expect ; they are by no 
means the hewers of wood and drawers of water that one 
finds so extensively in Africa. They do little or no work, 
neither washing nor mending their husbands’ clothes nor 
cooking ; all this is done by Gourages or others of whom 
one or more is to be found in almost every household—other 
than the very poorest—and even amongst one’s own ser- 
vants, acting as “*‘ gentlemen’s gentlemen.” 

Women of the upper classes are jealously secluded and go 
out but rarely; when they do they ride mules astride, are 
completely veiled or rather covered up in their chammas and 
are accompanied by an escort on foot, one or two of whom 


Customs & Practices 69 


walk or trot by the side of the mule holding the lady in 
position. 

Getting on to the mule is an operation that must by no 
means be witnessed by the profane masculine eye; I 
remember on the occasion of the first visit paid to my wife 
by an Abyssinian lady of rank I went to the entrance to 
speed the parting guest. To my surprise a number of 
members ot the escort took off their chammas and held them 
all round the mule so that their mistress could climb into her 
saddle in complete seclusion. 

But rigid as may be the rules of privacy governing the 
lives of women, there are no harems, and no guard of eunuchs 
to watch over them as in Moslem countries. 

Nevertheless other Eastern customs are practised, such as 
circumcision among men and a mild form of clitoridectomy 
among women; this custom, be it observed, is not as is often 
supposed of Jewish origin, but probably of much more 
remote antiquity, and is further evidence of the Hamitic 
descent of the Abyssinians; according to Gibbon circumcision 
had been practised ‘‘ by the most ancient Ethopians, from 
motives of health and cleanliness”? and presumably not 
therefore as a religious rite. 


CHAPTER VI 
Customs & Practices—(conrd.) 


ERCIFULLY the Abyssinians have not yet 

adopted our hideous European garments except 

for an occasional helmet or felt hat, and some- 

times a pair of boots, and they retain their old 
picturesque clothing with which we have been familiarized 
from the sketches of the earliest travellers. 

The distinctive feature of the dress is the chamma, 
which is worn by both men and women of all ranks ; and by 
the beauty of the chamma can as a rule be judged the posi- 
tion or state of purse of the wearer. It consists of a piece of 
material about three yards in length and from two to four 
yards in width according as to whether it is doubled or not. 

The more beautiful specimens of these are hand-woven 
from native cotton, spun and prepared by the Abyssinian 
women. ‘These are usually edged with red or mixed 
coloured silks, and those worn by the high priests, great 
chiefs and princes and princesses have a very handsome 
border varying from twelve to eighteen inches wide, carried 
out in silks of vivid colours woven into an artistic design. 
They are as fine as gossamer, though large and warm; they 
are not as arule sold, but if ever obtainable by Europeans 
cost from 200 to 500 dollars. 

The more ordinary chammas are also woven by hand, but 
of imported cotton, and by comparison are of a much harder 
and coarser character, though still nice to look at. Natives 
who cannot afford the hand-woven shawl make use of a 
length of abougedid or cotton sheeting for the same purpose. 

7O 


Customs & Practices a1 


The chamma, which is not unlike the old Roman toga, is 
draped round the shoulders, often being brought up over the 
head to the eyebrow and again over the lower part of the face 
and nose, leaving but the eyes visible. It is always lowered 
from the face and head as a mark of friendliness or respect, 
and generally when passing Europeans, though I have known 
Abyssinians of the anti-foreign old régime to cover up their 
faces more closely when passing the Frangi. At court those 
in attendance twist the garment round the waist and throw 
the end over the right shoulder from back to front. Asa 
general rule, however, women turn them up on the left 
shoulder, whilst men free their right arm and shoulder. 
They make, floating in the breeze, a very picturesque addi- 
tion to the costume of the wearers. 

Very little difference is apparent in the dress of the 
Ethiopian men and women of any class. This is made of 
imported white cotton materials of varying design and 
quality, and consists of roomy trousers tied round the waist 
and tightened in from calf to ankle, and a loose shirt reach- 
ing below the knee. ‘The latter is worn longer by the women, 
with some coloured silk embroidery round neck and cuffs ; 
this embroidery is also carried out round the bottom of the 
trousers, which are tightly fastened at the ankle with tiny 
silver or gold buttons. The shirts of both men and women 
have very close-fitting sleeves from elbow to wrist, which are 
also buttoned, the men’s shirts being finished with high 
tight neck bands which give them a clean, smart appearance. 

Sometimes I have seen, though rarely, the shirt and 
trousers, and even the chamma, worn in pink or blue or even 
yellow. This is a sign of mourning—white is otherwise the 
universal rule. 

Most Abyssinians wear a head-covering of sorts. In 
the case of the people this generally consists of a piece of 
white muslin twisted round or tied over the head; I have 
also, though rarely, seen them wearing straw hats of native 
manufacture, and, still more rarely, a sort of brown woollen 


iE: Customs & Practices 


cap with a tuft, not unlike a fez in shape. The better- 
class Abyssinian of both sexes sometimes affects a wide- 
brimmed soft grey or black felt hat of European manu- 
facture. 

The Abyssinian lady and gentleman are frequently to 
be seen with a black satin three-quarter mantle, ornamented 
by a little gold braid round the neck and generally a 
coloured silk lining. In the rainy season a black woollen- 
hooded cape or burnous is donned by all classes, women 
wearing the hood at the back, and men sporting theirs on 
their left shoulder. ‘The burnous is also a sign of mourning, 
for which purpose people of every class wear it, even the 
Prince Regent. 

A further, and less pleasant, sign of mourning is for 
the bereaved one to refrain from washing his clothes ; 
but I only observed this practice in connection with servants 
and persons of humble position. Ordinarily they are very 
keen on washing their white garments, and even on trek 
there was a great “clean-up”? whenever we stayed in 
camp for an extra twenty-four hours. The day before 
our return into Addis was always the occasion for the most 
lavish use of soap and water, and the safari on arrival 
looked really quite smart, the men all having donned 
spotless white chammas, shirt, and trousers for the occasion, 
when, I am bound to say, they looked externally a good 
deal cleaner than our travel-stained garments allowed us 
to do. 

A cartridge belt of various colours and designs, from 
the plain native leather to the gold and silk embroidered 
specimen, is more or less generally worn by the men, and 
its value is also often an indication to the position or means 
of the wearer. In its place women use a girdle of some 
sort, to which is attached their keys, ear-cleaners, head 
scratchers, and small silver ornaments. Parasols of neatly 
plaited grass, intermixed with coloured cottons, are carried 
frequently by both sexes in all seasons. These are quite 


“SUIMO][OJ SULIVIq-aYlI [Ge}IAVUL TOY FO sVMUDYI 9{IYM 94} 
- dniiijs 94} ut A[UO 90} Siq oy} ! YURI Jo usu Aq UIOM adv9d [LIUOUaIVO JIS YoR[q 9Yj— soinjzeoy} [LOIdAY [eIOAVS SUTMIYS 


“SHHUANVUL) NVINISSACVY 


Customs & Practices 73 


picturesque, and no doubt serve their main purpose, but 
of course they cannot be closed up. Ordinary umbrellas 
are never used by the Abyssinians, though huge and 
brilliant coloured umbrellas are used by priests and other 
important personages on ceremonial occasions. 

On feast days the chiefs and other functionaries at 
Court change their cotton shirt for one of silk or satin, 
gorgeously embroidered in gold and silver, and in various 
colours. And finally a pelerine of bright-coloured cloth of 
velvet, or better still, of lion or black leopard skin orna- 
mented in silver and silver-gilt, is permitted to be worn by 
those only whom it is desired to distinguish on account of 
specially meritorious conduct, generally in war. 

The full dress costume of a Ras or Dejazmach, with 
bristling lion’s mane head-dress, velvet cape with lion’s 
mane collar, embroidered in gold and silver-gilt, and gala 
shield and sword-scabbard covered with velvet and 
embossed with silver-gilt ornamentation, is a really magni- 
ficent one, and the appearance of Dejazmach Nado, the 
envoy to King George in 1919, at Buckingham Palace, in 
this dress caused quite a sensation. 

Mention must also be made of one article which is an 
indispensable adjunct to the dress of every Christian 
Abyssinian, and that is the matad, a silken cord carrying an 
amulet or charm, which is worn round the neck as the 
badge of their faith. 

The gentler sex affect as much jewellery of all sorts, 
bracelets, rings, anklets, necklaces, earrings, etc., as they 
are able to procure; these are of native make as already 
described. As a general rule they have extraordinary 
small “‘ attaches,’ and of all the native bracelets that we 
collected in and round Addis Ababa none would meet 
round the wrist of any of our English friends. 

The fashion amongst the women of wearing the hair, 
which is jet black, varies, and sometimes it is left about two or 
three inches long, curling and waving, thus forming a becom- 


74 Customs & Practices 


ing frame totheface. More common, perhaps, is the style of 
doing up the hair into dozens of tiny plaits taking the form 
of the head, the ends being loosely tied together on the neck 
and left to hang; some affect a parting down the middle 
of their heads, puff the hair out at the sides, and do it up 
in a chignon at the back like many Europeans. Amongst 
the lowest classes one finds perhaps most frequently in 
both sexes the head shaved, the hair being allowed to grow 
till uncomfortable and then shaved again. This shaving 
appears to us a somewhat painful process, and to be an 
apt illustration of the dictum that i faut souffrir pour étre 
beau ; for one frequently sees the operation in progress, 
two forms squatting on the ground, one shaving the other 
with a bit of broken glass bottle. 

Children as a general rule also have their heads shaved, 
but a tuft of hair is often left on the crown of the head, 
or a fringe round their forehead, and young boys frequently 
have the head bare except for a strip of hair extending 
from the back of the neck to the forehead over the centre 
of the head, which gives the appearance of a cock’s comb 
and is most comical. 

The Abyssinians of the people are also addicted to 
buttering their heads, of which unpleasant (though fortu- 
nately not universal) practice I have been given three 
explanations. ‘The first is that it is done for purposes of 
adornment, which is understandable; the habit is not 
confined to Abyssinia! ‘che second, which is more curious, 
is that of protection against the sun’s rays. In this con- 
nection it is interesting to recall that Mr. Mansfield 
Parkyns, who spent three years in Abyssinia, used no head 
covering of any sort at any time other than a coating of 
butter, which he says he found as effective as any hat. 

The third (and most frivolous) reason is that butter 
in the hair hampers the free movement (and consequent 
irritation) of the little creatures that live there. ‘There 
is possibly something in this, as a ‘‘ head-scratcher,” in 


Customs &° Practices 76 


the form of a blunt silver or wooden pin, is a general 
ornament, as incidentally is also an “ ear-cleaner,” which 
resembles a small salt spoon. 

In some parts of the country where the hair-dressing 
mode is of an elaborate character, the women, when lying 
down to sleep, use wooden head rests for their necks, made 
of a slightly curved piece of wood supported on a sort of 
foot, the whole being a few inches high. Some of these 
are quite elaborately carved or coloured, but however 
pleasing they may be to the eye—and I have seen some 
very pretty ones—they must make exceedingly uncomfort- 
able pillows, and the use of them appears to argue an even 
greater interest in personal appearance than European 
women display. ‘These head-rests are of very ancient 
origin; they are curiously similar to the one discovered 
recently in Tutankhamen’s tomb. 

The more wealthy Abyssinians are very partial to scents 
and scented hair oils; the strength of the scent is more 
important to them than its quality, and the shops in Addis 
Ababa do a brisk trade in inferior imported toilet requisites 
of this kind, and charge fabulous prices for them. 

The curious custom of stopping up the nostrils is still 
met with, though I imagine it is becoming less and less 
common; but one still constantly sees natives on their 
way to market with a piece of green leaf, or a flower petal, 
protruding from their noses, and I remember on one 
occasion when an Abyssinian lady, who had been paying 
us a visit, was leaving the house, she produced some cotton 
wool and stuffed it carefully in both nostrils. 

Their love of pageantry, display, and functions is quite 
Oriental, and is well exemplified by the splendour of some 
of their religious and Court ceremonies (which I describe 
elsewhere), and by the large numbers of men with whom 
every chief of any importance surrounds himself when he 
goes out. No person of any standing would think of going 
out without a retinue of from a dozen to some hundreds, 


76 Customs & Practices 


according to his rank and station, and this practice even 
extends in a minor degree down the scale to much humbler 
persons, until one sees the absurd spectacle of a full-grown 
man mounted on a mule, followed by a couple (or perhaps 
only one) little slave boy trotting along as escort behind 
his master, with a full-sized rifle on his shoulder ! 

Amusements are few. The people seem to prefer to sit 
and chatter; they are great talkers, and whether in the 
servants’ quarters in a house or round their fires on trek 
one hears the clatter of their tongues almost incessantly. 

They indulge in spear-throwing occasionally, and in 
this they are very skilful, being able to throw accurately 
for a distance of sixty yards. ‘Their throwing spears are 
loaded at the butt to counterbalance the weight of the 
iron head, and this causes the shaft to quiver continuously 
when in the air in a very curious way. Boys play a sort of 
hockey, using a ball manufactured from natural rubber; 
but apart from this and a certain amount of music and 
dancing, active relaxation is seldom to be seen. 

They have (or had) an old game of chess of their own, 
which was not imported from Europe; the pieces are 
similar, but some of the moves are different. I saw an old 
ivory set of these chessmen in Addis, and very quaint and 
even beautiful they were—they are very rare now and 
dificult to obtain. Other games not unlike a variation of 
draughts are played—on wooden boards sometimes, or even 
on the ground by marking it out into squares. 

All Abyssinians can ride more or less, and they are on 
the whole good horsemen, though indifferent horse- 
masters. Except in war, or on the occasion of a fantasia, 
they seldom ride horses ; for purposes of daily use mules 
are almost universally preferred ; all but the poorest women 
also ride mules for getting about. 

The Abyssinian saddle is of wood with a pommel back 
and front, and a sheep-skin and some padding in the middle, 
the whole covered with a brightly embroidered saddle-cloth. 


Customs & Practices a 


The stirrups are round and very small, as the Abyssinian 
inserts only his big toe therein. ‘The bits are horrible 
instruments, consisting of a ring round the lower jaw and 
a spike which, when the reins are pulled, sticks into the 
roof of the animal’s mouth, and causes it to bleed freely ; 
in spite of, or perhaps because of this, I never came across 
an Abyssinian pony with a hard mouth ; indeed, they can 
nearly all be ridden on a snaffle. 

Their mules are so covered with many-hued trappings 
that sometimes they leave very little of the beast to be 
seen. These trappings are made of several thicknesses of 
native-dyed coloured leathers sewn together, machine- 
embroidered in silks of many colours, and covered with 
metal ornaments. 

On special occasions the Abyssinians of rank cover their 
mules with extra gorgeous drapings in vivid colourings of 
velvet or silk, decorated with handsome embossed silver or 
silver-gilt ornaments. ‘The men themselves on these 
occasions bring out their best sword and buckler, the latter 
being made of stretched and shaped rhino hide, covered 
with velvet and ornamented with silver and gilt mountings. 

The houses of the wealthier people are constructed of 
stone (of which ample supplies are available almost every- 
where), plastered together with a sort of mortar called 
chika, mostly mud and water; the roof is either of 
corrugated iron or is thatched. They are as a rule one- 
storied buildings, though I have been in one or two that 
had an upper story surrounded by a verandah and reached 
by an outside staircase, but these have generally been 
acquired from Greeks. In these cases the ground floor 
is frequently used as stabling for the mules and ponies 
(even amongst Greeks and Armenians), a state of affairs 
which can hardly be regarded as sanitary. 

In the peasants’ zuvkuls in the country men, women, and 
children, mules, ponies and other animals sleep altogether 
in their single room; if to the aroma arising from this 


78 Customs & Practices 


combined population be added the acrid smoke from a fire 
made of dung-cakes, and a plentiful accompaniment of 
fleas and other insects, the joys of a night’s shelter in such 
quarters may well be imagined. 

The house nearly always stands in a very large piece of 
ground surrounded by a mud and stone wall. It is a curious 
habit of theirs that in building the wall they generally 
start with the gateway. Occasionally, for one reason or 
another, the wall-building suffers a hitch, and one sees 
the quaint spectacle of a gateway (sometimes with a gate), 
a few yards of wall, and then nothing to impede general 
ingress. Some of the chiefs, however, are now building 
themselves better places, especially those that have been 
on missions to Europe. But even among these an ordinary 
twkul sometimes suffices, and most of the important chiefs 
I met in Abyssinia were content with most primitive 
installations. 

The tukuls of the poorer class are mostly constructed 
in a circular form of sticks plastered inside and out with 
mud. ‘The roof, which is made separately and put on 
last, is cone shaped, made of sticks or cane bound strongly 
together with strips of bark and then thatched: the latter 
is an art in which the Abyssinians particularly excel. The 
roof extends two or three feet from the walls, thus the 
torrential rains run off easily and leave the hut perfectly 
dry. 

Inside, a part is usually divided off by a length of sheeting 
suspended on a string, behind which, on a raised platform, 
the family sleep on couches or beds made of wood and 
grass and covered with skins; blankets are uncommon, 
and the chammas in which they are rolled form their only 
covering apart from the clothes which have been worn 
during the day. The remaining part of the hut is used 
for everything—living, cooking, eating, and also spinning 
in the rainy season, but of course in the dry weather much 
work is done outside. Apart from one or two rough 


Customs & Practices 79 


wooden stools, furniture is rare or non-existent in these 
huts. In most of them, however, there are one or more 
wooden packing-cases containing the owners’ most precious 
possessions, and fastened with a padlock and key; the 
remainder of their worldly goods are hung on hooks or put 
in niches in the walls. A form of basket-table is used at 
meal times as both dish and plate, and drinking cups made 
of horn, are still to be seen in the provinces though imported 
cups are now fairly common in Addis. A draught of mead 
from a cow’s horn a couple of feet long is delightfully 
reminiscent of the pictures of the Danish and Norse invaders 
of England in the distant past. : 

Practically every native has his own bit of ground enclosed 
by a rough hedge or mud wall, within which the owner 
grows a plentiful supply of grass which he uses for grazing 
his beasts, or converts into hay for his own purposes, or for 
sale. 

On the death of an Abyssinian great haste is made with 
his burial, which may take place within three or four hours 
unless he is a person of consequence. Funerals are accom- 
panied by numbers of relatives and friends wailing and 
beating their breasts, but no elaborate function seems to 
take place, and it is a common sight in the capital to see a 
corpse being carried to be buried on a native bed with only 
a chamma covering through which is visible the form of the 
body, often curled up as if having died in pain. 

Sometimes the bodies are placed in one of the various 
cemeteries near the town, but bodies seem to be buried 
rather casually ; a hole is dug, the corpse placed therein, 
and occasionally a few stones piled above to prevent jackals 
getting at it, but these incidentally, are quite inadequate for 
the purpose and soon get moved. 

The absence of tombstones or other distinguishing indica- 
tions results in places of interment soon being lost sight of ; 
indeed in Addis Ababa the principal place of burial near the 
market-place is ridden and walked over by passers, and 


80 Customs & Practices 


occasionally at night the jackals and hyenas come up from 
the river, dig up the lightly covered remains and indulge in 
gruesome banquets. ‘This is in marked contrast to the 
Moslem practice; their place of burial is very clearly 
indicated and well kept. 

The Abyssinians of the upper classes have a very much 
more elaborate ceremony. The body is taken to be buried in 
a church enclosure, followed by friends, soldiers, and 
retainers in numbers, sometimes hundreds, according to the 
position held by the deceased, and accompanied by much 
chanting and music. 


CHAPTER VII 


Origin & History of the Abyssinians 


Up to the Restoration of the Solomon Line (circa a.p. 1260) 


HERE are almost as many theories as to the origin 
of the race that we now call Abyssinian as there 
are writers on the subject, and a good deal of 
research work has yet to be done before it will be 
possible to be very definite on the point. Much of what is 
supposed to be known about the country is found on 
investigation to be built on the sands of legend and tradition 
rather than on the rock of fact, and few remains and records 
exist such as are available in the case of Egypt, for example, 
to act as landmarks through the centuries, and thus assist 
the historian in tracing the evolution of the race. Some 
writers of standing regard the Abyssinians as a Semitic race ; 
some deny them any Semitic ancestry at all; but neither of 
these theories seems to me to be capable of substantiation if 
the question be examined from the various points of view of 
history, anthropology, legend, customs, and language. 

I do not propose in the present chapter to go into this 
thorny question, but I think I may safely venture to say 
that the modern Abyssinian is compounded of three races : 
that he is probably originally derived from one of the two 
great families sharing possession of Northern and North- 
Eastern Africa, i.e. the Hamites ; that he has been strongly 
Semiticized by successive waves of Semitic invasion from 
Arabia; that a Nigritic element has been introduced by 
inter-marriage with conquered tribes of negro origin ; 

F 81 


82 Origin & History of the Abyssinians 


that such evidence as is obtainable tends to show a similarity 
between certain branches of the Abyssinian race and the 
pre-dynastic Egyptians ; and that accordingly there is some 
indication that they were settled in parts of the country as 
long ago as 5000 s.c. But as to when they migrated or 
whence they came, I will not venture an opinion; the 
cradle of the Hamitic race is unknown and will probably 
remain so. 

Much confusion has been imported into their early his- 
tory by the alternative use of the terms ‘‘ Ethiopia ” and 
“¢ Abyssinia.” The Abyssinians of to-day do not describe 
themselves as such but as “ Ethiopians,” a description which 
we have learned to associate more readily with the negro or 
negroid races of the South-Eastern Sudan, especially that 
part of it known as the Island of Meroé, that great tract of 
country lying between the Blue and the Black Niles (the 
Abai and the Atbara). 

One enthusiastic French writer has gone so far as to date 
the birth of the Abyssinian monarchy from the foundation 
of the Kingdom of Meroé by Cush about §800 B.c., but as 
he appears to regard the story of the Deluge as a world-wide 
calamity of historical authenticity I am afraid he cannot be 
taken very seriously. 

When I was in Abyssinia this year I had the advantage of 
many discussions with the “‘ Court historian,” a learned old 
gentleman who supplied me with a great deal of informa- 
tion, and who had caused to be compiled for my benefit on 
the instructions of Ras Tafari a complete list of the rulers of 
Abyssinia from the beginning of time up to date. The list 
commenced with Ori (or Aram), one of the thirty-five sons 
of Adam, who reigned during sixty years from 4530 to 
4470 B.c., and contained the names of no less than 312 
sovereigns, many of Egyptian origin, from that date up 
to A.D. 1779. ‘This I think is as good an illustration as any 
of the difficulties of historical research in the country. 

The confusion between Abyssinia, Ethiopia, Meroé, 


Origin & History of the Abyssinians 83 


Nubia, and Egypt is so great as to be almost bewildering, 
and I will not attempt here to unravel the tangled skein— 
it would require a volume to do so. I will confine myself to 
saying that there was undoubtedly a very close connection 
between Abyssinia and Egypt andthe Sudan; asis evidenced 
by the historical records we have of the dominion of Egypt 
over Cush, and its vice-royalty over Ethiopia ; the develop- 
ment by the Egyptians of gold mines on the borders of 
Abyssinia, and probably of copper mines within its borders ; 
the introduction of an Ethiopian dynasty into Egypt after 
many years of bitter warfare between the two; and 
in many other ways, not the least interesting of which, 
in view of recent happenings, being the embassy received by 
Tutankhamen from Ethiopia bringing presents of gold 
and of ships. 

Equally close is the connection between Abyssinia and 
Arabia ; there is little doubt but that at some early date one 
- and the same power ruled over part, at all events, of those 
two lands, and was seated on both sides of the Red Sea; the 
meagre records of Himyaritic inscriptions which have been 
found at Axum and quite recently in Tchertcher clearly 
indicate a close connection with Sabza in Southern Arabia, 
and we know that in the fifth century an annual caravan 
journeyed between Mecca and Abyssinia. Nor was Grecian 
influence lacking; the language was known in Abyssinia pro- 
bably about the time of Alexander, and ancient inscriptions 
have been found there in Greek. 

But authentic records as to this period of their history 
are unfortunately few and far between. The Chronicles of 
Abyssinia which give the names and certain happenings 
during the reigns of their kings are hardly adequate authori- 
ties on which to base history. I have compared the data 
given in numbers of these which are preserved at the British 
Museum, the Bibliothéque Nationale, the Bodleian and 
elsewhere, and sad to relate they are not only very scrappy 
as regards their contents but they do not even agree with 


84 Origin & History of the Abyssinians 


each other, so far as early history is concerned at all 
events. 

The learned Abyssinian historian to whom I have already 
referred assured me that these lists of kings had been com- 
piled prior to the advent of the Ethiopian dynasty in Egypt ; 
that the original compilation had been taken into Egypt 
and left there, and that after Egypt had later subdued 
Ethiopia, the originals had been lost. 

A further source of difficulty is that the kings of Abyssinia 
have always borne two (sometimes three) names, for to 
their baptismal name is added a regnal name assumed on 
accession. ‘Thus for example, King Daouit or David is more 
generally known as Lebna Dengel (Incense of the Virgin) 
and so far as the early kings are concerned this duality of 
nomenclature has led to some confusion. 

The earliest date in the history of Abyssinia at which I 
will pause is about 1000 B.c. when the Queen of Sheba is 
supposed to have visited King Solomon at Jerusalem. 
From the point of view of the Abyssinians of to-day this is 
one of the most important dates in their history. They are 
firmly convinced that the Queen of Sheba was the Queen of 
Abyssinia, that her seat was at their holy city of Axum, and 
that the son who was born to Solomon and Makeda was 
Menelik I, founder of the dynasty which rules in Abyssinia 
to-day, and which has ruled for nearly 3000 years over the 
whole or part of the country. I do not propose to enter 
into the historical merits of this tradition. I will merely 
say that it is regarded as a legend by most writers, though 
some have treated it quite seriously. Whether Sheba was 
Saba in South Arabia, or Soba between the White and Blue 
Niles, or Asab on the borders of Eritrea and French Somali- 
Jand, or Axum, or whether the legendary Queen Makeda 
ruled over a territory embracing several or all of these 
districts, are hypotheses which have all been advanced in 
turn, and which require careful examination. 

The young Menelik is supposed to have been sent back to. 


Origin & History of the Abyssinians 85 


Jerusalem by his mother to be educated, and to have 
remained there until he was about eighteen years old, when 
he returned to rule over his hereditary domains. 

His departure appears to have been attended by circum- 
stances which, to put it mildly, might be regarded as peculiar. 
He had conceived the brilliant idea of taking with him the 
Ark of the Covenant, containing the Tables of the Law 
received by Moses, which was kept in the Temple. But as 
Solomon not unnaturally objected, the enterprising young 
man stole it by substituting a counterfeit. The theft—if I 
may dare so to describe an event which is regarded as rather 
a clever move on the lines of “ spoiling the Egyptians ”— 
was not discovered for some little time, but when the loss 
was realized cavalry were sent in hot pursuit to retrieve the 
missing Ark. Just as the King’s forces were about to over- 
take the party, the earth opened and Menelik and his 
followers fell into an underground passage by means of 
which they traversed the Red Sea, and arrived safely at 
Axum in Abyssinia. But, alas for the success of the venture, 
just as the party were emerging from the passage the 
stone which guarded the end, and which had conveniently 
rolled away to allow them to pass, fell back into place before 
the Ark could get through, and no human effort could 
induce it to budge again; thus the Tables of the Law are still 
walled upsecurely somewhere in theneighbourhood of Axum! 

Menelik is supposed to have been accompanied by a large 
number of Jews from each of the tribes of Israel—some 
10,000 or 12,000 in all, though how this is to be reconciled 
with the anecdote related above I am at a loss to say. 
There seems, however, little doubt but that a Semitic 
invasion from Arabia on a large scale did take place about 
this time, although this is by some attributed to Sabzan 
merchants who came over in large numbers to Abyssinia to 
trade. 

From this time onwards the Abyssinians appear to have 
been subjected to Semitic influence to an increasing extent, 


86 Origin & History of the Abyssinians 


practising the Jewish religion, and adopting Jewish customs 
and practices, some of which survive to this day. 

During the succeeding seven centuries and a half no very 
striking events seem to have been recorded regarding the 
country, although from later records we know it must have 
been developing in civilization and intrade. But then we 
find interesting evidence of renewed connection between 
Egypt and Abyssinia, this time by way of the Red Sea. A 
Greek monk, Cosmas Indicopleustes, discovered in the sixth 
century at Adulis, a port on the Red Sea, a marble throne, 
and above it a marble tablet on which were engraved 
inscriptions in Greek. ‘The inscription on the tablet 
records how Ptolemy Euergetes, the third of the Greek 
dynasty in Egypt, in about the fourth year of his reign (circa 
243 B.c.) invaded and conquered large tracts of country in 
Asia and Asia Minor, aided by a brigade of elephants, both 
Troglodyte and Ethiopic, which he had himself captured in 
various parts of Abyssinia and trained for war in Egypt. 

Striking as this is, it is surpassed in interest by the other 
inscription, which was found on the throne. It was thought 
by Cosmas and many others after him until the beginning 
of the nineteenth century that the second inscription formed 
part of the first. But later investigation proved it to be quite 
a separate one, and of much later date, probably at least 300 
years later. ‘This inscription records inter alia the conquest 
of a large part of the province of 'Tigré (the northern part of 
Abyssinia) by a King of the Axumites (possibly Zoskales), 
and thus definitely links up modern Abyssinia with the © 
ancient kingdom of Axum. This kingdom is described by © 
Hall as having risen to power in the second century A.D. and 
as then being a civilized and well-ordered kingdom, the 
successor of the ancient Punt and the forerunner of the 
modern Abyssinia. 

This period is an important one in Abyssinian history, for 
not only have we the above-mentioned inscription as a — 
landmark, but also another and a later one in the form of 


Origin & History of the Abyssinians 87 


a great obelisk at Axum, which records further conquests 
and extensions of territory of the then King Aeizanes. And 
in his reign (circa A.D. 330) occurred the conversion of 
Abyssinia to Christianity, an epoch-making event which has 
affected the whole subsequent history of the country. 

This king is described under a variety of names, (even 
occasionally as a pair of twins), but whatever his names may 
have been his reign coincided with remarkable events. He 
had first conquered (or at all events defeated) the Homerites, 
the inhabitants of Yemen, and was evidently known to the 
Emperor Constantius who in his anger against and pursuit of 
Athanasius wrote invoking the aid of the “* Christian princes 
of Ethiopia” to exclude Athanasius from the most remote 
and sequestered regions of the earth. So early in their 
Christian life were the Abyssinians embroiled in the conflict 
of doctrines ! 

Two hundred years later (circa A.p. §20) the Abyssinians, 
who had apparently withdrawn from Arabia, returned 
thither and once more subdued the Yemen. Had this con- 
quest been maintained and made effective it would have 
changed the whole history of the world, but in a.p. 570, 
two months before the birth of Mahomet, the Abyssinians 
were defeated before the walls of Mecca, and shortly after- 
wards expelled from Asia for ever. This year, the year of 
Mahomet’s birth, is said to be the first year of the era of the 
elephant, so-called from the fact of elephants having been 
used by the Abyssinians in the attack on Mecca. In his 
incomparable style Gibbon thus sums up the effects of this 
reverse :— 


“Tf a Christian power had been maintained in Arabia, 
Mahomet must have been crushed in his cradle, and 
Abyssinia would have prevented a revolution which has 
changed the civil and religious state of the world.” 


Prior to their expulsion from the Yemen the Abyssinians 
had entered into some sort of alliance with the Emperor 


88 Origin & History of the Abyssinians 


Justinian, and an embassy from that ruler had been received 
with much pomp. They had by that time made considerable 
progress in the art of navigation and in trade ; had estab- 
lished settlements along the shores of the Red Sea, and it is 
even said that they had pushed their operations as far as 
India, though it is more probable that this occurred only at 
a later date. 

It is accordingly the more remarkable that there should be 
little of interest to record during the ensuing four centuries 
ormore. But at a period which is variously chronicled as 
A.D. 925, 927, 937, and g60 (!) an event most important for 
Abyssinia took place, and although the precise details are 
somewhat difficult to determine with any great accuracy the 
course of events would appear to have been somewhat as 
follows. When the country had been converted to Chris- 
tianity a section known as the Falasha refused to accept the 
new doctrines, retained their Jewish beliefs, and remained a 
people apart, governed by their own kings, shut up in their 
mountain fastnesses of Semyen. Probably in about the year 
960 the then ruler, a Queen Judith by name, raised the 
Falasha in revolt, massacred the entire royal family (with a 
single exception), seized the throne and held it for forty 
years. Her task was the easier in that by an ancient Abyssin- 
ian custom every single member of the royal family was 
confined in a large amba, or natural fortress known as Debra 
Damo. ‘The origin of this practice, like so many things in 
Abyssinia, is obscure ; one tradition has it that it owes the 
origin to Queen Makeda ; another that it was due to the first 
Christian king, Aeizanes ; but as may well be imagined, such 
a custom must necessarily be associated with a mass of 
unreliable legends. Nevertheless it is an undoubted fact 
that the unhappy royal family, sons, daughters, nephews, 
and cousins—spent their lives in confinement, and on at least 
two and probably on three occasions were massacred en 
bloc. Another amba was chosen later on, no doubt owing to 
the sinister associations of Debra Damo, and it was on Amba 


Origin & History of the Abyssinians 89 


Geshen that a second batch of royal princes was exter- 
minated by the Moslem invaders in 1540. 

The Falasha regime did not last long, but during its sway 
the country was covered with blood and ruins; they were 
driven from power in some forty years, and then for nearly 
three centuries a usurping dynasty held the reins of power ; 
these were known as the Zagues, and came from the province 
of Lasta (south of ‘Tigré, east of Lake Tsana). 

Only one of these sovereigns seems to have made his 
mark on history, and that was King Lalibala, the author of 
the wonderful rock-hewn churches which I have described 
fully in another chapter. He had other ambitious designs, 
or at all events was credited with them; he desired to 
divert the course of the Abai (the Blue Nile) in order to 
punish the Egyptians, and great works to this end were 
apparently commenced ; traces of these were reported by 
the explorer Dr. Beke. But whether he was convinced of 
the impracticability of his schemes or whether death put an 
end to them, they were at all events not carried very far. 

The direct Solomonean line continued meanwhile to 
reign in the southern province of Shoa; a single member of 
the royal family had been enabled to escape through 
the efforts of some of his adherents, and the uninterrupted 
line of direct descent was thus preserved, according to 
Abyssinian tradition. 

Strange to say there is no record of fighting between the 
rival lines, nor does any attempt appear to have been made 
by the dispossessed kings to regain their birthright. At the 
end of this period (circa a.p.!1260) according to Bruce, Basset, 
and other writers, the royal line was restored by a series of 
events almost incredible to those who do not realize the 
intensity of the Abyssinian belief in their religion, and in 
their connection with divine power through Solomon. 

A remarkable ecclesiastic, Tekla Haimanot, who ever 
since has been venerated as one of Abyssinia’s greatest saints, 
appears, according to tradition, to have negotiated an 


go Origin & History of the Abyssinians 


arrangement between the Zague sovereign, Nacueto Laab, 
and the representative of the legitimate line then reigning 
in Shoa, Yekuno Amlak, by which the former was to resign 
from, and the latter was to be restored to his overlordship of 
Abyssinia, on certain conditions. ‘These were firstly that 
Nacueto Laab should be granted irrevocably for himself 
and his heirs the kingdom of Lasta, that he should be 
entitled to use the kettledrums of silver and sit on the 
golden stool, as heretofore only the Kings of Abyssinia 
might do, and that he should be free from all taxes and 
tribute; secondly, that one-third of the kingdom should be. 
ceded absolutely to the Church; and thirdly, that the 
Abouna, or head of the Church should never be an 
Abyssinian. 

Amazing as it may appear, the first of these extraordinary 
conditions was honourably observed for nearly five cen- 
turies. The second, though revoked in theory by the 
Emperor Theodore [in 1410 and modified in the last century 
by Menelik, still holds good to a great extent, for if the 
Church does not own a third of the country at all events it 
owns an enormous share of it; and the last of the three 
conditions holds good to-day. 

Nevertheless | am bound to say that according to 
other sources of information there is another and a 
more likely, though more prosaic, account of the restora- 
tion of the direct Solomonean line. According to this 
account Yekuno Amlak recovered the throne by defeating 
Nacueto Laab in battle ; no definite treaty was ever made 
by Tekla Haimanot, but the above-mentioned conditions 
were granted partly as terms of peace, and partly in grati- 
tude to Haimanot for the services he had rendered by 
prayer and propaganda. 


CHAPTER VIII 


History of the Abyssinians 


From the Restoration of the Solomon Line (circa a.p. 1260) 
until to-day 


HATEVER may have been the means by which 

the so-called House of Solomon recovered the 

throne, the fact remains that it did so and that 

it has retained it until to-day ; although usurpers 
have occasionally reigned the rightful rulers have always 
returned to their own. 

They have however had to fight very hard for their 
existence; the restoration found the coast-line already 
largely lost owing to the conversion of the population of 
the litoral to Islam, and this opened the door to the 
successive Moslem invasions and attacks which all but 
engulfed the country. That Abyssinia was not attacked 
by Moslems at an earlier date when they carried the sword 
and the Book over so much of the rest of the world is prob- 
ably due to the fact that Mahomet’s relations and followers 
had fled from persecution in Arabia to Axum, and had there 
found a safe asylum ; in the commentaries of the Koran it 
is stated that Mahomet had accordingly given instructions 
that the country which had sheltered his adherents should 
not be assailed. 

But Islam made up for its earlier abstention by the 
intensity of its later attacks. The story of the kings succeed- 
ing the restoration is a record of continuous and increasing 
warfare against Moslems from the Kingdom of Adal and 

gI 


92 History of the Abyssinians 


the district of Harrar—indeed from practically the whole 
length of the coast-line. 

The fortune of war varied; but generally Abyssinia, 
in spite of periodical internal civil warfare, was able to 
maintain its position against the invader pretty well until 
the beginning of the sixteenth century. The records of 
the time deal at great length with the exploits of the 
warrior kings, and in particular with the epic of the life 
and struggles of a great national hero, King Amda Sion I, 
who during a thirty years’ reign—from 1312 to 1342— 
extended enormously the boundaries of the Empire, and 
enjoyed an uninterrupted series of victories over the 
followers of Mahomet, his solitary defeat being the last 
battle of his life in which he was killed. 

But the dawn of the sixteenth century was to usher in a 
series of terrible disasters for the country. The Turks, 
who had recently conquered Egypt and Yemen, desired to 
extend their sway over Abyssinia, and thus to close more 
securely the Red Sea against Europeans and to facilitate 
their contemplated attack on India. ‘They took Zeila (now 
in British Somaliland), assisted the inhabitants of the litoral 
northwards with firearms, artillery, janissaries, and even 
Arab mercenaries, and then set this motley collection of 
fanatics at the throats of the Abyssinians, who armed only 
with sword and spear were at a terrible disadvantage. Led 
by a chief of great capacity, Mohammed, or Ahmed Gran 
(Gran meaning léeft-handed),'who had risen from the rank of 
a mere soldier to be Emir of Harrar, the Moslem hordes 
poured into Abyssinia and wreaked a terrible vengeance 
for the earlier (and only) victory gained over the armies 
of Adal by King Lebna Dengel. 

They won battle after battle, occupied province after 
province, massacred and enslaved large numbers of the 
population, burned and pillaged towns, monasteries, and 
churches, and seemed in a fair way to become masters 
of the whole country. But the dauntless young David 


History of the Abyssinians 93 


never lost hope, and though one of his sons was killed and 
another taken prisoner and he himself was hunted like a wild 
beast from one hiding-place to another, he maintained a sort 
of resistance until his death, a resistance which was destined 
to be ultimately successful, though he was not to see it. 

During his reign, which lasted from 1 508 to 1540, a 
Portuguese embassy had visited Abyssinia and had remained 
there for nearly six years (1520-7); a member of this 
expedition who had been left behind had subsequently 
been sent to Portugal (via India) accompanied by an 
Abyssinian envoy to plead for assistance against their 
common Moslem foe, and after many vicissitudes and 
delays a small Portuguese force of some 450 musqueteers 
under the leadership of a very gallant gentlemen, Don 
Cristoforo da Gama, brother of the great explorer of that 
name, had landed at Massowa and joined forces with 
the Abyssinians in 1541. 

After a few preliminary successes Don Cristoforo was 
defeated and killed by Gran and ‘his men in August, 1542, 
but the remnants of the Portuguese with their Abyssinian 
allies under King Galaoudeous (Claudius) renewed the war 
in the beginning of 1543, and in F ebruary of that year the 
Imam Ahmed Gran was defeated and slain, and the Moslem 
forces routed. The victory was a decisive one, the danger 
of Turkish domination was past, and though during his 
reign of nineteen years Galaoudeous and his successors had 
much fighting before them, the independence of the country 
was for the time being safe. 

But barely .escaped from this danger, the unhappy 
country had to suffer another invasion, this time from an 
African race known as the Galla, whose origin and exploits 
are dealt with in an earlier chapter. These people carried 
on the work of destruction and devastation begun by Gran 
and his followers, and though defeated they were never 
expelled from the country but settled there permanently 
in large numbers. 


94. History of the Abyssinians 


Peaceful penetration of a religious character on the 
part of their quondam Portuguese friends was the next 
danger the Abyssinians had to meet. Relays of Jesuit 
missionaries began to enter the country, and while intro- 
ducing much of material good, such for example as the art 
of building, of which they left many beautiful monuments, 
they set themselves not only to impose their particular 
form of religious belief on the inhabitants, but also more sua 
to endeavour to secure temporal power for themselves. 
The measure of success they attained by converting King 
Socinios in 1632 is described elsewhere, but as related there 
they were shortly afterwards expelled, lock, stock, and barrel, 
by Socinios’ son and successor, Fasilidas, and those who 
would not go were killed. Thus according to Gibbon 
(a little sweepingly perhaps) ‘‘ the gates of that solitary realm 
were for ever shut against the arts, the science, and the 
fanaticism of Europe.” 

But if the gates of Abyssinia were not shut “ for ever ” 
against Europe, they at all events remained closed for a very 
long while. An occasional traveller was able to make his 
way with great difficulty through the country, as for example 
did James Bruce between 1769 and 1772, but to all intents 
and purposes Abyssinia was shut to the world. 

They appear to have had some connection with India 
at about this time. Grant Duff refers to Abyssinians as 
having fought in India with the Mahrattas, about 1740-60, — 
and he also refers to Mahratta marriages with Abyssinian ~ 
wives. It is at least curious that there should be a native 
State in the Konkan division of Bombay, the ruler of 
which is stated to be a direct descendant of Abyssinian 
(Mahometan) ancestors who were for many generations 
admirals of the Mahometan rulers of the Deccan. 

In spite of practically unintermittent struggles with Adal 
and with the Gallas, Abyssinia never recovered her coast- 
line; she was torn by incessant civil war and internal strife, 
and beyond a certain amount of literary work in the shape of 


History of the Abyssinians 95 


translations of the lives of kings and saints and portions of 
the Scriptures she made no step in advance along the line 
of progress. By 1769, indeed, the king of kings of Ethiopia 
had lost all real power over his dominions, and the monarchy 
as such had to all intents and purposes ceased to exist. The 
rulers of Tigré, of Gojam, of Amhara, and of Shoa were in 
turn either independent or rulers of one or two provinces 
other than their own, and in about 1800 the main power 
fell into the hands of a Yedjow Galla dynasty, though puppet 
emperors of the royal line were duly appointed, deposed, 
poisoned or otherwise provided for with regularity ; in 
1813 no less than six kings and ex-kings were alive. 

This unhappy state of affairs lasted until the middle of 
the nineteenth century, when foreign countries began to 
endeavour to break in upon Ethiopia’s seclusion. The 
first country to make a Treaty with Abyssinia was Great 
Britain, who in 1841, through the intermediary of Major 
Harris, concluded a Treaty of F riendship with Sehala Salassie, 
King of “ Shoa, Ifat, and the Gallas.” This was followed 
_ by the conclusion of a similar treaty in 1843 on behalf of 
Louis Phillipe by a French envoy, M. Rochet d’Héricourt, 
and another between England and Abyssinia in 1849—this 
time with Ras Ali, the Galla ruler of Amhara and Tigré 
and the North at Debra Tabor, who is reported to have 
remarked when signing the instrument that he did not 
believe it to be of the slightest use, as no British trader 
would be stupid enough to come to Abyssinia. 

The conclusion of these treaties does not seem to have 
led to any very useful result, the state of the country 
became even worse, and then amid this welter of disorder 
the hour brought forth the man, and one of the most 
remarkable personages in their history appeared on the 
Abyssinian stage. 

Various conflicting accounts of his birth, parentage, and 
earlier life have been written ; he is sometimes described 
as the son, sometimes as the nephew, of Dejazmach Confu, 


96 History of the Abyssinians 


a small chieftain of Kuara, and the date of his birth is 
variously given between 1816 and 1820. However that 
may be, he appears to have been thrown on the world 
in poor circumstances at an early date, and Theodore (or 
Kassa as he was then called) did not find his early life cast 
in easy or pleasant paths. It is said (and it has of course been 
denied) that his mother was so poor as to be obliged to sell 
kousso in the streets of Gondar; he appears to have been 
incarcerated in a monastery, and only when the monastery 
was pillaged and its inmates put to the sword was Kassa 
enabled to escape and take refuge with a relative. On the 
death of this relative, Kassa became the leader of a band 
of “‘free companions,” seized large tracts of territory in 
Dembea, married the daughter of Ras Ali, the Emperor, was 
confirmed in his ownership of the lands he had seized, 
defeated Egyptian attacks on the country, quarrelled with, 
fought and defeated his powerful father-in-law, and cap- 
tured and installed himself in Gondar, the capital of the 
country. After a short breathing space he took the field 
again, defeated the rulers of all the various states or king- 
doms in the country with the exception of Shoa, and in~ 
1855 was crowned King of Ethiopia at Axum under the 
name of Theodore, and recognized by the Great Powers 
of Europe. 

Shortly after his coronation he absorbed the Kingdom 
of Shoa, hardly a blow being struck owing to the death of the 
King Haile Melikot, and took back with him into captivity 
Haile Melikot’s son, Sehala Mariam, the boy who was 
later to become the greatest ruler Abyssinia has known, 
viz’ Menelik II. 

Thus within the space of about a dozen years this remark- 
able man had conquered and unified the whole of Abyssinia, 
a vast and warlike country of many kingdoms, and by his 
personality and gifts had become the ruler of a state in 
which he had been a prisoner and a bandit. 

Unfortunately the tale of his greatness must end here, 


H.I.H. Ras TAFARI MAKONNE G.C.M.G. 


Regent and Heir Apparent to the throne of Ethiopia. 


: +5 i>) 
Pa aes AL 


ae 


af i 


=i 
' 


- 


b 


aay 
oe 


7 


ge 


Kad) 


- 


‘History of the Abyssinians 97 


for he was unable to govern what he had created, or toretain 
what he had acquired. From being an abstemious, continent 
and clean-living man he became addicted to habits of 
drunkenness, immorality, arrogance, and cruelty, which 
estranged him from his own countrymen ; whole districts 
rose in revolt against him; the young Sehala Mariam 
escaped and proclaimed himself King of Shoa ; and finally 
Theodore brought down the wrath of England upon his 
head by imprisoning and ill-treating British officials and 
missionaries and sending offensive messages to the British 
Government, because the answer to one of his communica- 
tions had been delayed. And so came about Lord Napier’s 
expedition of 1867-8 when Magdala, that wonderful natural 
fortress, fell practically without resistance, and Theodore 
abandoned by his followers and with most of the country in 
rebellion against his abominable misrule committed suicide 
to the accompaniment of the thunder of British guns. 

He was succeeded by Ras Karsa, a Tigréan chief who 
had assisted the British in their expedition, and who 
was obliged to start on the conquest of the unhappy country 
de novo. After much fighting he forced practically the 
whole of Abyssinia to recognize his claims, and was crowned 
as Emperor under the name of Johannes in January, 1872. 
He defeated both Dervishes and Egyptians, who had thought 
the moment opportune to make inroads on the country, 
and it was during his reign (a wise and tolerant one on the 
whole) that Great Britain concluded: the Treaty of 1884 
with Abyssinia through the able diplomacy of Admiral Sir 
William Hewett. 

John still had to admit two kingdoms within his own, 
vassals though they were, viz. those of Gojam and of Shoa. 
With the former not much difficulty was experienced, but 
with the latter it was another story. 

Sehala Mariam (or Menelik, by which name he is better 
known), who had proclaimed himself King of Shoa on his 


escape from captivity under Theodore, revived his preten- 
G 


rey: History of the Abyssinians 


sions to the empire of Ethiopia shortly after John’s accession, 
and preparations for the inevitable hostilities were com- 
menced on both sides. John marched his forces to the 
attack, but when the two armies drew near one another 
matters were arranged without fighting. John confirmed 
Menelik in his kingdom of Shoa, and crowned him with his 
own, hands, but forced him to acknowledge his suzerainty ; 
this agreement was contained in a Treaty dated 4th March, 
1878. Further, by the marriage of John’s son to Menelik’s 
daughter and an agreement that this son should succeed 
John as King of Kings, it was hoped that the succession 
difficulties had been overcome. 

But John’s son died, and when John himself was killed in 
battle against the Dervishes in March, 1889, Menelik, who 
had been continually intriguing against John with the 
Italians and otherwise, once again claimed the empire of 
all Abyssinia for himself, and so strongly had he consolidated 
his position that he was able to cause himself to be crowned 
as Emperor under the name of Menelik II at Entoto in 
November of that year. This most remarkable man gave 
us Abyssinia as it is to-day, consolidating the various king- 
doms composing the empire, subduing (for the first time 
effectively) the Gallas in the east, south, and west of the 
country, thus almost doubling the size of the empire by the 
addition of huge territories, and introducing, or attempting 
to introduce, European ideas on quite an extensive scale, 
such, for example, as the railway from the coast, and many 
roads. 

An event of interest which took place early in his reign 
was the arrival of Major Marchand at Fashoda, the effect 
of which in Abyssinia was considerable. French influence 
was predominant at that time, and the country was busied 
with the preparation and despatch of Franco-Abyssinian 
forces to join hands with that very gallant officer, which 
- for various reasons failed to effect their object. ‘These 
efforts, typical of a state of feeling happily long since trans- 


History of the Abyssinians 99 


formed, were the cause of a great deal of difficulty, trouble 
and misunderstanding for a considerable time in inter- 
national affairs in Abyssinia. 

But the outstanding feature of Menelik’s tenure of power 
was his victory over the Italians in 1896, a victory which placed 
Abyssinia in a new and much stronger position vis-a-vis the 
rest of the world. ‘The Italians, with whomas already stated 
Menelik had been intriguing against King John, had con- 
cluded the celebrated Treaty of Ucciali in 1889 with King 
Menelik, and by the interpretation which they gave to the 
wording of Article XVII. of that Treaty claimed what 
amounted to a virtual protectorate over Abyssinia. This was 
hotly disputed by Menelik, strained relations led to war, and 
after several minor engagements the whole fighting strength 
of Abyssinia, numbering over 120,000 men, was pitted 
against a weak force of Italians consisting of some 14,000 
rifles and guns at Adowa. The history of that battle is too 
well known to warrant repetition in extenso ; sufficient to say 
that the Italians, badly led and suffering from dissensions 
in their higher command, were induced to commit TOSS 
tactical errors, and to attack the Abyssinians in a strong 
position of the latter’s choosing. 

They advanced in three columns which failed to unite, 
and their whole force, beginning with the left wing, was 
overwhelmed by superior numbers. F ighting with a hope- 
less bravery which commanded the admiration of their 
adversaries the Italian troops fell back; the retreat became 
a rout and the rout a massacre; their losses were estimated 
at over 10,000 men killed, wounded, and taken prisoner. 

This victory secured Menelik in his position, and enabled 
him to devote his energies to the consolidation and exten- 
sion of his power. He gradually overcame all resistance, 
and when, in 1901, King Tekla Haimanot of Gojam died, 
Menelik’s authority over Abyssinia was complete. 

During his reign foreign Missions poured into Abyssinia, 
and foreign Legations were established at Addis by all the 


IOO History of the Abyssinians 


Great Powers; boundary and other treaties were concluded, 
and had he lived a little longer his country would have been 
a far more advanced state that it is to-day. He had received 
numerous honours from foreign governments, including the 
G.C.B. and the G.C.M.G. from H.M. King Edward VII. 
Unfortunately he was seized with a paralytic stroke in 1908, 
and from then until his death in 1913 he was practically 
hors de combat. | 

He was a remarkable monarch, progressive in ideas, an 
able ruler and a strong man, and the awe of his name 
endures unto this day, for even now people swear “ ba 
Meneltk,” i.e. “in the name of Menelik,” and so great was 
the fear of trouble at his death that no publication of it 
was made; it was never even admitted that he was dead, he 
had no public funeral, and it is only now, nearly ten years 
after the event, that a mausoleum 1s being erected for his 
remains. 

Menelik had married the Empress Taitu (as her fifth 
husband) in 1883, but had no children by her. He had, 
however, had three children by previous unions, a son who 
had died young ; a daughter, Shoaraga, who had married 
Ras Mikhael, and who had one son Lej Yasu; and another 
daughter Zauditu. 


The succession was consequently as follows :— 
Haile Melekot King of 8hoa(died1855) 


Son, MenelikI,b.1844.King of Daughter, Tanina Wirko 
Shoal866. succeeded 1889.died1913. married Shamabit 


married Taitv,1883.who died Feblt. 5 
7918., leaving no children. Son.R as Makonnen 
3 children by previous marriages. died 1906 


Son(diedyoung) Davghter,Shoaraga Davghter. Zauditu 
in.Ras Mikhael Succeeded as 
gorernar of Wollo Galla Empr ess 1916. 

| 


Son.Lej Yasu born. 18986. Son.RasTafari’' 
Nominated 1908. sycceeded 1913 born 1898. regent 


deposed 1916. &heir apparent 
1916, 


THE Ex-EMPEROR LEJ YASU AND HIS TUTOR. 


On the left is the ex-Emperor, dispossessed in 1916, and on the right is his tutor, the late Ras 
Tessama, an able and enlightened man. 


A NOTABLE GROUP OF ABYSSIANIANS. 
Left to Right—Seated.—(1) Fitorauri Hapta Giorgis (Minister of War) : (2) The late Ras Tessama 


’ 


{Lej Yasu’s Tutor) ; (3) The ex-Emperor Lej Yasu; (4) Ras Betwadet Mangesha; (5) Dejaz- 
mach Woolie (late husband of the Empress). [Photograph hy M. Bertolani.] 


History of the Abyssinians IOI 


Lej Yasu had been nominated as Menelik’s successor 
under the Regency of his tutor, Ras Tessama, a very enlight- 
ened man who most unfortunately died in rgr1, it is said 
by poison. His place was taken by a Council of Ministers 
until 1913, when the Emperor Menelik died and Lej Yasu 
became formally Emperor. 

A protracted diplomatic struggle had been taking place 
between the Empress Taitu, Ras Tessama and some of the 
leading Rases between 1908 and 1913, and the nomination 
of Lej Yasu was alleged by some to have been due to the 
efforts of the Empress Taitu, in order to maintain power in 
her own hands as he was a mere boy, and by others to the 
Rases at that time assembled in Addis, against the wishes 
of Queen Taitu. 

However that may be, Lej Yasu was destined to hold the 
reins of power for a short while only. He fell into bad 
hands, and under their evil influences developed character- 
istics and vices of no mean order. Not only so, but he 
mortally affronted his subjects by coquetting with Islam, 
and during the Great War endeavoured to assist both the 
Germans and the methodically Mad Mullah. 

He was deposed on 27th September, 1916, when Menelik’s 
daughter, Zauditu, was nominated as Empress, his grand- 
nephew, Ras T'afari Makonnen, being at the same time 
appointed Heir Apparent and Prince Regent. Zauditu was 
crowned on 11th February, 1917; Lej Yasu, who had taken 
refuge first in the Dankali country and later in Tigré, was 
taken prisoner in the summer of 1921 and is now in 
confinement. 

This cursory glance into the past will, I hope, be sufficient 
to give an idea of the stormy times through which Abyssinia 
has passed, and the consequent difficulties placed in the way 
of its development ; and it will, I trust, render it easier to 
appreciate the condition of the country and its people as 
they are to-day. 


CHAPTER IX 


Form of Government 


the sovereign of Abyssinia, for the ruler is styled 

the King of Kings, the Conquering Lion of Juda, 

the Elect of God, Emperor of Ethiopia, and 
claims a royal and semi-divine descent of three thousand 
years. With such a style and title and such an origin it is 
hardly surprising that the monarchy is an absolute one ; it 
is in fact an autocracy based on a modified feudal system 
with variations. 

In theory all power is vested in the hands of the sovereign ; 
all land belongs to him; every man is bound to render 
personal service in case of need in peace or in war; he is the 
supreme judge pronouncing death sentences and other 
important judgments, and in short he is generally monarch 
of all he surveys. At least that is the theory of it ; in prac- 
tice it does not quite work out in that way. 

For the feudal system and (until recently) the division of 
the country into separate kingdoms have combined to 
weaken the central authority considerably, and to put a 
practical check on the sovereign’s power whether for good 
or evil. 

Thus as one kingdom extended its sway over its neighbours 
the residence of the Emperor changed from one part of the 
country to another; Axum, Gondar, Ankobar, Entoto, 
Addis Ababa have all in turn been the seats of Empire. The 
other districts remained, conquered it is true, but under the 


rule of powerful hereditary chiefs, and within their borders 
102 


My | "ETAT cest mot” might well have been said by 


Form of Government 103 


the writ of the central authority was little more than 
nominal. 

The power of the throne was further limited by the 
feudal system in force in virtue of which every man owed 
fealty to his immediate chief, and this immediate chief to 
the greater man above him, and so on upwards to the ruler 
of the province, Ras, or King as he might be. The fealty 
of the peasant to the crown was thus only indirect, and the 
result is well exemplified by the Abyssinian proverb ‘‘ A 
dog knows his master, but not his master’s master.” 

It was not until that exceedingly astute monarch King 
Menelik came to the throne that any change was attempted, 
and then this African Louis XI set himself to attack the 
system. He gradually suppressed the hereditary rulers of 
the various provinces as opportunity offered and substi- 
tuted for them nominated governors, a practice which has 
been followed by his successors, so that to-day, with the 
important exception of Gojam, nearly all the provinces are 
governed in the name of the Empress by rulers alien to the 
district. This has naturally to some extent weakened the 
feudal system in one of its main features, has correspondingly 
strengthened the central authority, and, most important of 
all, has tended to the permanence and stability of govern- 
ment. 

But the great chiefs, or Rases, still exercise a good deal of 
power, as the late boy-emperor Lej Yasu found to his cost 
when he flouted the religion of the country ; and unfor- 
tunately this power, though undoubtedly wisely exercised 
on that occasion, is a source of danger when considered 
together with the existing dual regime of Empress and 
Regent. 

The provincial chiefs are the heads of all branches of 
Government in their districts, administrative, judicial, and 
financial, and short of inflicting the death penalty they are 
almost omnipotent. 

They receive no salary, but have to look to a portion of 


104 Form of Government 


the proceeds of the local taxes for their pay, and it is to be 
feared for the formation of a “‘ retirement fund” as well. 
They have, of course, to maintain a certain number of troops, 
and to be ready to join the Emperor with a good many more 
in the event of national emergency. Periodically they are 
summoned to Addis Ababa for conferences with the sover- 
eign of a more or less protracted nature, which serve the 
double purpose of keeping headquarters in touch with the 
governors, and of preventing the latter from getting into 
mischief by too long absences in unfettered control of their 
own domains. 

This helps to maintain the practical power of the central 
authority and focuses control at Addis; and so far it is all 
to the good. But it has drawbacks, making as it does for a 
good deal of congestion, and producing other results which 
emphasize the difficulties of having two heads to the 
governmental machine. 

For although the Empress is the nominal head of the 
State all business passes through the hands of Ras Tafari ; 
just as Menelik did, so does he endeavour to cope personally 
with every detail of administration, great and small, impor- 
tant and unimportant, from the negotiation of a treaty to the 
granting of a permit for the importation of a revolver ; 
and the disadvantages of such a centralized form of State 
management are too obvious to need recapitulation. 

Yet the approval and authority of the Empress are 
necessary for various formalities ; and this not only causes 
endless delay but also frequently much difficulty. ‘Two 
sets of advisers come into play: the door is opened to 
intrigue of all kinds, political, home and foreign, commercial 
and administrative, for applicants disappointed with the 
judgment of the one authority not unnaturally endeavour 
to help their cases by appeals to the other. 

The Empress and the Ras are supposed to be assisted by a 
Council of Ministers, but its functions appear to be some- 
what nebulous, though some of the individual Ministers 


H.I.M. THE Empress ZAUDITU OF ETHIOPIA. 


Daughter of Menelik II, the Conqueror and the Lion of Juda, the Elect of God, King of Kings 
of Ethiopia. 


ae ¢ as e 


we 


Form of Government 105 


have less sketchy spheres of operations, such for example as 
the Minister of War or Commander-in-Chief, whose main 
object seems to be to thwart every innovation or modern 
improvement ; the Minister of Foreign Affairs, an able 
man who speaks French well and who looks after foreigners 
in the country very pleasantly ; and the Minister of Finance. 
The last-named is, or ought to be, a happier man than our 
Chancellor of the Exchequer, for there is no budget, no 
income tax, and no debt to America or other foreign loans. 

There used to be a sort of Prime Minister, sometimes 
more than one at a time, described as the Betwadet, or 
“ favourite,” whose power was very considerable. During 
the reign of Lej Yasu the occupant of this post was an astute 
and capable person, Haile Giorgis by name, who has been 
confined in chains since the fall of his royal master until 
recently, when he was allowed to come up to Addis Ababa 
to fight a lawsuit. Whether on account of the difficulty of 
finding a man capable of undertaking the duties of this office 
and willing to run the risks attached to it, or for other 
reasons, the post has not since been filled. 

The revenue of the country is derived from the Customs 
and from national taxation. The Customs are mainly 
leviable on goods coming in on the railway, but also, of 
course, on the caravans from the other trade routes—at 
Gambela from the Soudan, and on the northern and eastern 
boundaries respectively from Eritrea and British Somaliland. 
Octroi is also leviable on all caravans of goods travelling 
about the country. 

The taxation which is imposed is onerous—it is collected 
locally and'consists of (1) Tithe—payable generally in kind, 
and nominally equivalent to a tenth of the production ; (2) 
a tax in kind varying in different parts of the country e.g. 
cattle, cotton cloth, wood, foodstuffs, etc. ; (3) personal 
labour, which theoretically compels every man to work one 
day in four for his overlord ; (4) Dergo—the supply of food 
to troops or important personages on the march by villages 


106 Form of Government 


on the route. The incidence of all these imposts varies in 
fact in the different provinces according to the nature or 
needs of the governor, and according as the inhabitants are 
Abyssinians or natives of a subject race. 

But generally it may well be imagined that although 
nominees of the central government are appointed to 
various posts in the provinces, the receipts do not find their 
way in the due proportions that they should to headquarters. 

And even at headquarters there is undoubtedly a certain 
amount of leakage amongst officials, at all events the minor 
ones, for baksheesh, the immemorial custom of the East, 
unfortunately plays a by no means inconspicuous part in 
Government contracts and similar financial transactions. 
This I fear is encouraged by European concession hunters 
and undesirables, who in order to outbid each other and to 
stand well with the minor officials of the Government are 
not too particular in their methods. This is doubly unfor- 
tunate as demoralizing the Abyssinians and as tending to 
give a false impression of European commercial standards. 

Consequently the power and efforts of the sovereign are 
further reduced by financial limitations, although to what 
extent I am unable to say ; there is so far as [ am aware no 
means whereby an outsider can judge at all accurately of the 
financial position. 

In any event there is not much money available for public 
works of which the country stands so much in need, such as 
railways, roads, sanitation, water supply, and other necessi- 
ties. A few exist; the postal and telegraph service, for 
instance, which was originally a French concern, but now 
an Abyssinian is at the head of it, though the principal 
employes are French. There is a letter postal service from 
the coast to Addis twice a week, but there is no distribution 
of letters—everyone fetches his own. The telephone 
service is more extensive, and, so far as the capital is con- 
cerned, on the whole compares not unfavourably with the 


English telephone service during the War. The parcel post 


Form of Government 107 


service from Djibouti was deplorable—parcels took several 
months to reach the capital from Europe, and when they did 
arrive they were generally in a disgraceful condition, having 
been explored en route, and usually a portion of their con- 
tents abstracted. It has now been suspended entirely. 

As for the telegraph service between Djibouti and Addis 
Ababa, it would be difficult to find words to describe what 
It was two or three years ago. Telegrams took longer than 
letters to reach the coast, they were generally so mutilated in 
transmission as to be quite useless when received, and their 
contents were frequently public property before the re- 
cipient had them. ‘This service was, however, improved 
immensely, and now it is almost good. Telegrams sent by 
the Italian line via Kasala are generally quite satisfactory 
when the line is working, which is infrequent, as it is as a 
tule being alternatively destroyed and repaired. The tele- 
graph line from the capital to the west (Gorel) was not 
known to work at all during the whole of our stay in the 
country. 

There is unfortunately no public wireless system, as 
consent for this has been refused by the Government. The 
Italian Legation has a small private wireless recelving appara- 
tus, but it is not powerful enough to transmit. 

There is a Government hospital founded by the Emperor 
. Menelik, and directed by a French doctor; this I am glad 
to say was in course of being rebuilt and reorganized at the 
time of our leaving the country. But beyond these the 
efforts of the Government have not gone. 

The whole of the administration is carried on at the 
Gebbi, which serves as Government offices and as the 
headquarters of the Court and the residence of the 
Empress. 

The Gebbi is however hardly worthy of its inmates ; 
it consists of a heterogeneous collection of buildings of every 
conceivable nature, modern stone-built erections, wooden 
chalet-like houses, tin-roofed shanties, and even tents— 


108 Form of Government 


all enclosed within a series of walled-in courtyards and 
approached through a huge old gateway flanked by towers. 

Here are to be met all and sundry who have business with 
the Court or Government; foreign ministers seeking 
audience followed by their mounted escorts of Indian 
sowars, or French or Italian native soldiery ; European 
travellers paying their respects to Ethiopia’s sovereign ; 
officers of the Court on their gaily caparisoned mules with 
their throngs of Abyssinian followers carrying rifles and clad 
in their picturesque white robes ; traders seeking concessions 
or contracts; Europeans, Abyssinians, Greeks, Indians, 
Arabs, Syrians, Armenians, every variety of race and inter- 
est and occupation. 

But to penetrate into the innermost court and to meet 
the sovereign personally is quite an undertaking. On 
arrival at the outer walls of the Gebdz one is met by an escort 
and passed through the entrance which is lined with soldiers 
sitting up above the gateway even, and of course all carrying 
rifles. ‘The visitor rides (there is no other means of loco- 
motion, and the “roads”? do not permit of walking), 
through three or four enclosures full of soldiers lying, 
sitting and standing about busily engaged in doing nothing. 
All the way he is preceded by gentlemen who might well 
be described as “ ushers of the (black) rod” inasmuch as 
they are armed with long switches with which they hit at 
everyone who comes near. Their aim is pretty good, 
and it is difficult to imagine that they can be really 
popular. 

The sure-footed little ponies carry the visitor through 
gradually diminishing throngs up to an inner enclosure, 
where he dismounts and is handed over to one relay after 
another of Court attendants clad in spotless white robes, 
who finally usher him into “ the presence.” 

Zauditu, though small in stature, loses nothing in dignity 
thereby. She possesses the royal attribute of tact of which 
she gave evidence at the time of her coronation in a 


Form of Government 10g 


proclamation which contained a graceful allusion to Queen 
Victoria who, she said, was a short woman like herself but a 
great woman like she hoped to be. She is also quick and 
apt in her conversation, as a foreign minister found to his 
cost one day when reproaching the Empress with the short- 
comings of her Government in dealing with the chaotic 
condition of some part of the country. The Empress 
knew full well of the chaos prevailing in parts of Europe, 
some of it not too far from London, and her reply was 
delightful. “ Yes,” said Her Majesty, “it is quite true ; 
God is punishing most of the nations of the world by giving 
them bad Governments, but I do not think He is punishing 
Abyssinia more than a good many others.” 

Surrounded by some twenty or thirty “ ladies and gentle- 
men in waiting” the Empress, seated, receives her guests, 
shakes hands with them, and after they have been given 
chairs the conversation proceeds more or less smoothly 
through interpreters until the signal to go Is given. It is 
not always easy to discover suitable subjects for discussion, 
and one’s first experience of a function of this nature is apt 
to be a little nerve-wracking. 

When the Empress receives foreigners in audience, she 
is always closely veiled and even shakes hands with her guests 
through her chamma. Up till comparatively recently she 
had only been seen so closely veiled as to leave no part of her 
visible but her eyes, but a year ago she attended a private 
function at one of the Legations, and for the first time 
appeared in public unveiled before foreigners. 

At the great State banquets the Empress is not only veiled 
but is concealed behind silk curtains, for no one must see 
her eat. Great ceremony attends these banquets; many 
officers of the Court are on duty, clad in magnificent old- 
world robes of gold-embroidered velvet and silk from 
beneath which protrude the velvet and gold-embossed 
scabbards of their large curved swords ; these gorgeous 
old-world trappings throw into the shade the foreign corps 


IIO Form of Government 


diplomatique in their very modern and, by comparison, in- 
significant uniforms. 

Beyond these banquets (which are held at midday) and 
the reception in audience of foreign notabilities there is 
little in the way of Court entertaining on the part of the 
Empress. ‘The reception of anew Minister at Court is how- 
ever the occasion of great display. On a recent occasion of 
this nature no less than 6000 soldiers were sent to accompany 
the foreign envoy from the Legation to the palace; each 
important chief brought his own quota of retainers, and 
the roads were blocked with troops of armed men, each 
following its own chief or sub-chief who were gorgeously 
bedecked, and were riding mules covered with sumptuous 
trappings. The Ras turned out his own bodyguard of 
European-drilled Harrar troops, and the Gebbi was thronged 
with all the Abyssinian notables dressed in their historic 
robes. 

The Empress attends the various great religious pageants, 
the magnificence of which is greatly enchanced by being 
held in the open air under a dazzling sun and a cloudless 
blue sky ; and proceeds in state to the national church of 
St. George, mounted on a mule and riding under a huge 
red and gold umbrella, surrounded by a gorgeously dressed 
Court and thousands of troops and followers. Just recently 
—horribile dictu—a motor-car has been substituted for the 
mule, and it must be admitted that this innovation does not 
fit in with the appearance of the encircling multitudes. 

The personality of Ras Tafari is a very different one. 
He was born in 1893, the son of that extremely able and 
enlightened man Ras Makonnen, who as representative of 
Ethiopia visited London, Paris, and Rome, and who was 
designated to succeed his uncle the Emperor Menelik, but 
who unfortunately died in March, 1906, shortly before that 
monarch wastakenill. Ras'Tafariat the age of twenty-three 
was called on to fill about as difficult a post as could well be 
imagined, and I think it is a great tribute to his natural 


Form of Government III 


powers that he has not only been able to maintain his 
position but to strengthen it, and little by little to improve 
the conditions of his turbulent subjects. 

Rather below medium height, slight in build, with refined, 
even delicate features, and small and well-formed feet and 
hands, his carriage is full of dignity, and while his courtesy 
and charm of manner and his keen sense of humour are most 
attractive there is little doubt but that any attempt at 
undue familiarity would receive short shrift. 

He is married to a very charming and cultured lady, the 
Waizeru Menin, and has four children, one son born 27th 
July, 1916, and three daughters aged respectively ten, five, 
and three years. 

He was educated at Harrar with the help of the French 
mission there, and as a result speaks and writes French 
fluently—a gift which enables him to dispense with the 
services of interpreters when he so wishes. He has read 
widely, and his literary tastes are catholic ; works of every 
land fill his shelves, and they bear obvious signs of use. 
I even found him one day studying a very modern work on 
Bolshevism, the tenets of which political faith do not, I 
need hardly say, commend themselves to him! He is 
animated by broad-minded and progressive ideas, and is an 
indefatigable worker, his hours being usually from about 
seven o’clock in the morning to ten o’clock at night. 

Owing to the difficulties of his position the Ras has never 
been able to visit Europe, greatly as he would like to do so ; 
indeed up to the end of last year he had never left Abyssinia 
with the exception of a short trip to Djibouti just over his 
borders. But in October, 1922, he was able to realize one of 
his wishes in part at all events, and to pay a flying visit to 
Aden. Here he was received with Royal honours—the 
fort and warships in port gave him a salute of twenty-one 
guns, and the gunboat on which he came over replied 
with a similar number; the troops of the garrison were 
reviewed, and Aden generally broke out into festivities of 


112 Form of Government 


all kinds. ‘The Ras was immensely impressed with all that 
he saw there, and his hosts were no less impressed with his 
qualities. For within ten minutes of seeing an aeroplane for 
the first time in his life, Ras Tafari was flying in it in spite of 
the almost tearful efforts of some of his entourage to 
prevent him. 

Evidently the account of his travels must have inspired the 
Princess with a desire to follow his example, for during last 
April Waizeru Menin visited Jerusalem, and after spending 
the orthodox Easter there, travelled on to Cairo, where she 
was received by King Fuad and Lord Allenby, and then 
visited Luxor. 

The Ras and his consort have recently built for them- 
selves a small palace on modern European lines, and here 
they receive the foreign colony, the corps diplomatique 
and any foreign visitors whom they wish to honour. Very 
pleasant are the little luncheon and dinner parties here, 
and after dinner (the product of an excellent chef) His 
Highness’s guests are often taken into Europe by way of a 
private cinematograph which has recently been acquired 
by him. 

The Ras has in the grounds his own printing press, and a 
very admirable model dairy which could give points to 
many European institutions of the kind; he is building also 
in his own grounds a hospital with sixteen beds which is to 
be supported entirely by himself and the Princess, and a 
small church to which the public will have access. 

In the neighbouring Ras Makonnen Gebbi (the palace of 
his late father) the Ras transacts his heavy daily tasks, day 
in and day out, devoting himself to the welfare of the 
country in a manner which to the unprejudiced observer 
must surely be worthy of all admiration. For although he 
is the overlord of a huge province of Abyssinia wherein he 
owns vast estates to which he might retire and devote 
himself to a life of ease and pleasure, yet he chooses to re- 
main in a difficult and even dangerous position, working 


Form of Government 113 


harder than most men in the world, exposed to all kinds of 
vilification and intrigue, amid difficulties that generally are 
neither understood nor appreciated. In my view Ras 
Tafari Makonnen is a sincere and genuine patriot, and as 
such is worthy not only of the support of all sections of his 
own people, but also of the European countries whose 
territories border on his, and whose interests are therefore 
to some extent linked with those of Abyssinia. 


CHAPTER X 
Law & the Administration of Justice 


HE administration of justice appears to be 

superior to our own in one respect at least, namely, 

that excepting in the Consular Courts there are 

no lawyers. ‘This is possibly due to the fact that 
Abyssinian law is even less comprehensible to the multitude 
than our own, being written in Geze, a language no 
one understands except some of the priests. 

Whether for this or for other reasons the Abyssinian 18 
extremely fond of litigation, and for minor troubles such as 
accidents, ownership of sheep and cattle, small pilferings, 
etc., the ordinary courts of law do not meet his needs. 

Impromptu courts are a regular feature of street life in 
Addis Ababa, where every man conducts his own case, with 
the help of friends and witnesses; any passer-by can be 
called in to act as judge, and the venue of the court 1s a 
shady spot in the open street. Here one passes numbers of 
cases in progress daily, conducted with a wealth of oratory 
and a vigour of gesture that would seem to imply that 
immense issues are at stake. 

Of course these are only minor cases ; for serious offences 
there is a system of law courts presided over by judges, at 
the head of whom is the 4fa Negus, or “ Breath of the 
King,” and governed by an elaborate code of laws known 
as the Fetha Nagast. ‘This compilation is not regarded 
with favour by the more advanced Abyssinians, one of whom 
described it to me as “‘ a bad book” ; it is partially based on 
the Mosaic Law and on other portions of the Old and the 

114 


Administration of Justice ea: 


New Testament, and was probably put together by an 
Egyptian early in the fourth century, assumed its present 
form about the thirteenth century, was translated first 
into Arabic, and thence into Geze, in which language it 
has remained unaltered to this day. 

As Geze is a dead language, understood only (as I have 
said above) by some of the priests, the judges are obviously 
unversed in law—nor do they as a rule appear to be gifted 
with other striking qualifications for the performance of 
their functions. 

They are consequently generally assisted by priests sitting 
as assessors, and are necessarily guided by these not too 
enlightened divines—a pernicious system which adds to the 
already excessive power and influence of the Church. 

The Fetha Nagast consists of three parts: the first, the 
most important, deals with Church law and embraces twenty- 
two chapters; the second with the Civil Code in twenty- 
three chapters; and the third with the Penal Code in seven 
chapters. 

The latter is obviously based on the Mosaic Law, and 
very drastic are the punishments. For theft a repeated 
offence is punishable by the loss of a hand or foot, the sentence 
is carried out by a butcher in public, and the stump is plunged 
into boiling fat to arrest the bleeding ; whether the victim 
survives or not depends, I imagine, upon how clean the 
boiling fat may be. I am, however, bound to say that I did 
not witness any case of this sort while I was there. 

For murder or manslaughter the penalty is death, and the 
sentence is carried out by hanging. These hangings are of 
frequent occurrence, and generally take place on trees in the 
market-place, where the criminals are left suspended for a 
few days. The hanging is done ina very cruel and primitive 
manner ; a noose is put round the neck of the culprit, and 
he is gradually hoisted up and left to die none too quickly, his 
arms having been first tied behind his back so tightly that 
frequently his shoulder is put out or his collar bone broken. 


116 Administration of Justice 


One specially painful case of the kind took place some 
years ago (things are quite different now) when we were first 
staying for some months at the Hotel Imperial, situated in 
the centre of the town. At this time there seemed to be 
a certain amount of unrest prevailing, and the nights were 
disturbed by frequent discharge of fire-arms. A European’s 
servant was killed near by, people were said to be attacked at 
dusk on the roads, and although of course ridiculously 
exaggerated tales were spread abroad, still the conditions of 
affairs could not be described as being the best in the best of 
all worlds. An attempt was made on the hotel, ending in 
nothing more than a good deal of firing and noise, the house 
of the Political Director of the railway was the scene of an 
abortive effort one night, and the climax came, when the 
house of a Greek working man close to the hotel was attacked 
by a band of ruffians, a small Greek child was killed, another 
wounded, and one or two servants killed or wounded. 

This wanton crime infuriated everyone, and the three 
Legations together made a very strong protest to the 
Government, with the result that a few weeks later, small 
placards were pasted all about the town, with a notice in 
French and Amharic of the forthcoming execution by hang- 
ing on such and such a date of the supposed actors in this 
tragedy. On the appointed day all our servants requested 
permission to go and see these executions, and large throngs 
of natives appeared in all directions wending their way to the 
scene of punishment. For these executions a_ special 
example had to be made, so instead of using the large trees 
in the market-place as was the rule, wooden gallows were 
erected at seven different points in the town and a criminal 
hanged on each, the whole party being marched round to 
the first gallows where six of them witnessed the first man’s 
fate, and so on from gallows to gallows until they were all 
disposed of. Needless to say we did not participate in this 
spectacle, but on going out during the next few days it 
was almost impossible to avoid one or another corner of 


Administration of Justice 117 


the market-place where these wretched miscreants were 
hanging. 

The “ eye for an eye” doctrine implies the death penalty 
for manslaughter as well as for murder, and is in fact imposed 
in such cases unless the family of the victim are prepared to 
accept blood money, which is by no means always the case. 
A striking example of this occurred some time ago when 
a sais belonging to the British Legation, when riding a fresh 
horse through the town, accidentally knocked a man down 
and the man died from his injuries. Despite all the efforts of 
the British Minister the sais was hanged. We were very 
anxious on one or two occasions where similar accidents were 
caused by our saises ; they were arrested, but mercifully the 
victims of the accidents did not die, so we were able to get 
them off with a fine. 

The lighter side of this code is exemplified by the follow- 
ing story which was current in Addis Ababa, and which s1 
non e vero e ben trovato. A man was cutting branches in a 
tree, and in the course of his operations fell from the tree 
on to an unfortunate individual who was lying asleep below 
and killed him. The family of the deceased duly demanded 
the life of the “‘ murderer,’ and blood money having been 
refused, the case was brought before Menelik to pronounce 
sentence. He admitted the claim of the family according 
to the law, but pointed out that to satisfy the requirements 
exactly death must be inflicted on the criminal in the same 
way as that in which he had disposed of his victim. Conse- 
quently it would be necessary for the victim’s nearest 
relative to fall out of a tree on to the criminal. The family 
compromised for blood money. 

I do not vouch for the truth of this story, but the decision 
was surely worthy of a descendant of Solomon. 

Confinement to prison is a usual sentence for compara- 
tively minor crimes, but it is a terrible punishment, for 
prisoners are not fed and have to depend on their relatives 
and friends for their existence in the small and filthy 


118 Administration of Justice 


buildings in which they are confined. And if an epidemic 
visits the prison, well—the prisoners’ troubles are at an end. 

Gangs of prisoners chained together are employed on 
road works in the capital, and it is pitiful to pass these 
wretches clamouring for money, for, as I have said above, 
they receive no food, and exist on charity. 

A curious form of procedure is that by which debtor and . 
creditor—and sometimes accuser and accused—are chained 
together by the hands. They wander about in seeming 
amity quite unconcernedly chatting to their mutual 
acquaintances en route, and I have often wondered on 
seeing these quaint couples which was which. Both seemed 
equally cheery, though as a form of amusement dragging a 
chained companion about day and night, would, I should 
have thought, be likely to pall. 

A strange example of this I came across was a man and 
woman chained together. In this case I discovered on 
inquiry that the lady was the creditor, and very voluble 
she was on the iniquities of her male appendage; the 
situation must have become strained at times. 

An admirable practice is that whereby a “ guarantor ” 
must always be produced whenever an Abyssinian enters 
into any undertaking, or as we should say makes a “‘ contract 
of service.” ‘Thus when engaging a servant, taking on staff 
for a safart or making a deal, the Abyssinian concerned names 
a guarantor for his bona fides, and it is to this guarantor that 
recourse is had if things go wrong. 

And very faithful are these guarantors to their obliga- 
tions. They not only suffer as a matter of course the 
penalties attaching to the misdeeds of their principal party 
should occasion arise, but I have been told of cases where 
they have voluntarily given themselves up for punishment in 
place of an absconding individual for whom they have 
pledged themselves. 

In the provinces cases of crime are judged according to 
their importance by the local chief, by judges, or by the Ras 


¢ 


Administration of Justice 119 


(or governor) of the province. They have no power to 
impose the death penalty, this being the prerogative of the 
sovereign, and men accused of murder are sent up to Addis 
to be tried. If condemned they are generally sent back for 
for execution at the scene of their crimes as a warning to 
others. 

I remember in this connection seeing a well-worn, though 
tenantless gallows, erected on the railway track a little out of 
Addis, and thinking what a cheery welcome this must be to 
the traveller new to the country on rounding one of the 
last bends of the line before reaching his destination. 

I am afraid that in some of the provinces judicial adminis- 
tration leaves a great deal to be desired. I have heard 
reports when on trek, and have had other instances quoted 
to me of long-drawn-out litigation, venal judges accepting 
goubo from both parties to the suit, and exhausting the 
patience of the unhappy litigants until the case was aban- 
doned in despair. And I believe that in some of the more 
remote regions a practice known as libacha, which used to 
prevail even in Addis Ababa, is still to be met with, viz. 
the detection of crime by the drugging of a small boy who 
is then made to wander about the village, and to “ smell 
out ” the home of the supposed criminal, with the physical 
aid of the relatives of the injured person. 

A friend of ours told us rather an amusing incident on his 
return from a week’s trek, and, having the merit of being 
true, it gives a good example of the morals and methods of 
the provincial legislature. Our friend had obtained a guide 
for this trek, with whom he was very well satisfied, being a 
useful fellow, willing to turn his hand to anything (including 
valeting), and possessed of a good knowledge of the country. 
When they arrived at their destination the local chief 
promptly arrested the guide and put him in chains. Our 
friend, almost inarticulate with rage, induced an official who 
happened to be in the district at the time, and who knew 
this local chief, to go and see him and endeavour to adjust 


120 Administration of Justice 


matters. It was then discovered that the said guide was a 
well-known and self-confessed murderer, and was “‘ wanted” 
at Addis Ababa for hanging purposes. However, the chief, 
who was a good fellow, let the man out to complete his 
duties and look after our friend, on the understanding that 
he was to be rearrested and re-chained when the job was 
over. So the murderer-guide-valet came back quite cheer- 
fully, and worked very well for the rest of the trip, after 
which he was reincarcerated and, doubtless, hanged. 

In the more remote parts of the country, one has fre- 
quently to be one’s own judge and jury. For example a 
Greek merchant asked me on one occasion to order him from 
England a hundred pairs of handcuffs. When curiosity 
impelled me to ask for what purpose they were required, 
the merchant explained that if any of his coffee was “ mis- 
laid ” when in course of transport he put the carrier in 
irons, and that he had already in his own coffee district 
thirty-five men in chains on this account. 

The position of foreigners before the law is curious and 
ill-defined. It is partially dealt with under the Franco- 
Abyssinia Treaty of 1908, but this only exempts French 
subjects in suits inter se from Abyssinian jurisdiction, and 
so far as I am aware there is no instrument which would 
legally apply this privilege to British or other foreign 
residents. 

In practice, however, Europeans are exempted from the 
jurisdiction of the Abyssinian courts, and their civil 
difficulties are dealt with by their own Ministers and 
Consuls. This is a most valuable and indeed an essential 
privilege ; it would not otherwise be possible for Europeans 
to live or trade there. 

But what the position would be in a penal case if a 
European were, say, guilty of murdering an Abyssinian 
is not at all clear. Let us hope the case will not arise, but 
if it should the situation would be extremely awkward. 

The Consular Court of each country deals with civil cases 


A WARNING TO EvIL DOERS. 


One of seven executions carried out on the same day in the market place at Addis Ababa, The 
bodies remain hanging for several days as a useful object lesson, 
THE MARKET PLACE AT ADDIS ABABA, 


This centre of the commercial life of the country is a hive of industry for six days a week. In 
the background are the Customs House Buildings. 


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‘ - : aid ; “ii : Vo so " ; a | 
| a A Th; Se ¥ : 4° cae ae 7 tan Ava o* 


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Administration of Justice 121 


for the subjects of that country, and an appeal from its 
decision lies to the Legation, i.e. to the Minister sitting as 
a Court of Appeal. In both courts it is usual for one or 
more assessors to be appointed by the Consul or Minister 
to sit with him. 

There has recently been established under the French 
Treaty referred to above a Mixed Court to deal with cases 
between Abyssinians and Europeans. The court consists 
of an Abyssinian President, assisted by another Abyssinian 
and the Consul of the country whose subject is concerned. 
One day a week is reserved for the cases of each country— 
thus Greek cases are taken on Monday, French on Tuesday, 
etc. 

The litigants are, strange to say, represented by European 
counsel—French, English, and Russian—and I am bound to 
confess that the spectacle of these gentlemen standing as 
pleaders before the “bench” is not altogether pleasing to 
European ideas—at least so I thought when I attended the 
Court. 

If the “ bench ” are unanimous the decision of the Court 
is final, but if there is disagreement between the President 
and the Consul the case is referred for decision to the 
Crown, i.e. to Ras Tafari. I gather that there 1s some 
divergence of views as to whether the second Abyssinian 
and the European Consuls are judges or merely assessors. 
The former view seems to be held by Europeans and the 
latter by Abyssinians, but the issue does not appear to be 
material. The treaty is not clear on the point. 

The establishment of the Court undoubtedly marks a 
step forward, and no doubt when it has settled down, 
established its procedure and gained a little more 
experience, it will prove a valuable institution. The first 
and present President is Belata Herui, a distinguished 
Abyssinian who was a member of the last Abyssinian 
mission to England and America in 1919, and who speaks 


English well. 


CHAPTERS E 
Religion & the Church 


ARIOUS forms of religious belief have played 

a great part in moulding the destinies of most 

countries in the world, but I think that their 

effect can rarely have been more marked than in 
the case of Abyssinia. 

There is little doubt but that that country owes its 
present position of independence largely to the fact that, 
one of the first of the peoples of Africa to embrace Chris- 
tianity, it has maintained a form of that faith for nearly 
1600 years. ‘This fact added to the impregnable nature of its 
mountain fastnesses, and the warlike character of its people, 
has caused the country to be regarded somewhat differently 
to the bulk of the nations of Africa, and has contributed 
to its escape from the fate of partition amongst European 
powers which has overtaken the rest of the continent. 

Originally pagan of course, the country adopted Judaism 
nearly 1000 B.c. and about the time of the birth of Christ 
the mythological beliefs of Greece appear to have been 
introduced without however effecting the supersession of 
the Jewish faith. 

It was in the early part of the fourth century (a.D. 330 is 
the generally accepted date) that the conversation of 
Ethiopia from Judaism to Christianity is reported to have 
been effected as the result of the visit to that country of 
some shipwrecked Christians. Being successful in converting 
the sovereign and the Court they aspired to extend their 
sway over the whole country, and accordingly one of them 

122 


Religion & the Church 123 


returned to Egypt, obtained the assistance of the Alex- 
andrian authorities, was nominated Bishop of Ethiopia, 
and induced the Abyssinian people to join the Alexandrian 
or Coptic branch of the Church. 

According to Abyssinian tradition the first introduc- 
tion of Christanity took place at an even earlier date. It is 
alleged that Matthew the Evangelist visited the northern 
districts of the country about a.p. 30 and attempted the con- 
version of the people ; apparently however he made only few 
converts to the new doctrines and was eventually turned 
out. A further slight extension of the new faith is claimed 
to have been made a few years later ; indeed Alvarez writing 
in 1527 refers to Ethiopian books and traditions which 
describe Candace as the first Christian queen of the 
country and as having had her principal residence near Axum. 
Her conversion was alleged to have been due to a eunuch 
in her service who was sent by her to Jerusalem, and there 
met with Philip and was baptized by him as narrated in 
the Acts of the Apostles. This would be about a.p. 34, 
or some three hundred years before the generally accepted 
date. 

I do not propose to enter into the merits of this latter 
claim, nor even into the claim that Abyssinia became 
Christianized by divine inspiration during Christ’s child- 
hood without the aid of any missionaries (!) ; nor is it my 
purpose to trace the history of the Church from its inception 
up tonow. Suffice it to say that it has passed through many 
vicissitudes, and that for hundreds of years the Abyssinians 
had to fight for the maintenance of their religion against 
external and internal foes. The main attacks were the 
great Moslem invasion of 1528 which swept over the 
country and all but engulfed it, followed by the invasion of 
the pagan Galla, which came very near to being successful 
and which would in that event have resulted in blotting 
out Christianity in the country. And finally, the third 
attack on their particular form of Christianity, though not on 


124 Religion & the Church 


Christianity itself, came from the Portuguese missionaries 
who arriving towards the middle of the sixteenth century 
produced a good deal of effect on the religious life 
of the country. They actually succeeded in inducing 
one king to renounce the Alexandrian doctrine, to profess 
publicly his belief in Roman Catholicism, and to proclaim 
this faith as the national religion. But the success was 
short-lived ; public opinion, bitterly outraged, would not 
tolerate the supersession of the old doctrines, and the king was 
compelled to restore the national faith by public proclama- 
tion. His son, who succeeded him shortly afterwards, 
completed the work by expelling the Jesuits. 

In spite of these attacks the Abyssinians retain their faith 
unaltered to this day, though owing to their later conquests 
their rule extends over a larger number of non-Christian 
subjects than there are Abyssinians. ‘The Somals, Danakil, 
_and some of the Galla (in Harrar and Djimma) are Moslems ; 
the Shankala and other Galla (in Boran, Arussi and Walaga) 
are pagan, the latter believing in a form of supreme deity 
they call Wak or Wakwe, and a number of minor spirits or 
Sarosh. ‘The Falasha are Jews. 

Many of the Galla (in Wollo for example) were converted 
to Christianity by the Emperor Menelik, but his methods 
hardly seem to have been such as to inspire the converts 
with any profound or reasoned conviction of the merits of 
that faith. When he conquered a Galla country the 
inhabitants had to become Christians lest worse should befall 
them, and the process was rapid and simple—immersion 
in the nearest stream, circumcision, and generally the tying 
of a piece of blue silk cord round the neck. 

The form of Christianity professed by Abyssinia is the 
monophysite, which was condemned as a “ heresy ” by the 
Council of Chalcedon in 450. This doctrine recognizes only 
one nature in Christ against the view which has maintained 
itself as orthodox that the divine and human natures co- 
existed in him. But in spite of the thunders of Chalcedon 


Religion & the Church 125 


the Abyssinians have held to their doctrine, although 
controversies as to a single, dual, and even threefold nature 
have raged in the country right up to the time of Theodore, 
who possessed decided views on the subject, and exercised 
drastic methods in giving effect to them. 

The Church is to all intents and purposes an independent 
one, its only link with the Coptic Church in Egypt on 
which it is nominally dependent being the appointment by 
Alexandria of the Archbishop, or Abouna: he is an 
Egyptian, and once appointed he is supposed never to 
leave the country. I believe this practice is generally 
maintained, though the present holder of the office, the 
Abouna Mateos, has gone on “ leave of absence”’ twice, 
once on a mission to Russia, and again recently to Egypt 
owing to serious ill-health. He is an amusing old gentleman, 
with whom I have enjoyed many talks; he has a great 
admiration for English methods of administration, and 
when I first arrived showed a keen interest in all we were 
doing after the war to rebuild Europe. 

Tradition relates that the appointment of a foreign 
Abouna was laid down as a cardinal principle by the great 
Abyssinian ecclesiastic and national saint, Tekla Haimanot, 
in the thirteenth century in order to maintain connection 
between Abyssinia and the outside world, and to avoid 
internal rivalry in the nomination to the headship of the 
Church. Be that as it may, the Abyssinians attach con- 
siderable importance to their connection with the Alex- 
andrian Church through their Abouna ; this may be gauged 
from the fact that the Treaty between England, Egypt 
and Abyssinia, made by Admiral Sir William Hewett with 
King John in 1884, expressly provides that “ H.H. the 
Khedive engages to grant all the facilities which H.M. 
the Negoosa Negus may require in the matter of appointing 
Aboonas for Ethiopia.” 

His is the power to crown kings, and no priest can be 
ordained without him. He officiates at all the big religious 


126 Religion & the Church 


festivals, and his influence in the councils of state is reported 
to be considerable. 

Mr. Winwood Reade, in his book “The Martyrdom of 
Man,” states that “ by way of blessing he (the Abouna) 
“spits upon his congregation, who believe that the episcopal 
virtue resides in the saliva and not as we think in the 
finger-ends.” I am bound to say we never saw or heard 
of this particular form of benediction while we were there, 
but even if it were so, it would not be so very surprising in 
view of the fact that, as everyone knows, at the baptism of 
children Roman Catholic priests to this day will (unless 
they are prevented) moisten their thumbs with their saliva 
and touch the child’s nostrils therewith when they are 
baptizing it. 

Up to the time of King Abreha, when the conversion of 
the country to Christianity took place, the head of the then 
existing religion was in accordance with Mosaic practice 
the High Priest. ‘The nomination of a Bishop or Abouna 
followed, and functions were divided between the two, the 
Abouna being regarded as the chief in matters of religion 
proper, settling all questions of dogma and theology, whilst 
the High Priest controlled the Church staff and property. 
A further functionary known as the Jtcheque was created 
in the thirteenth century, and duties were divided amongst 
these three up to the time of the Emperor Menelik, who 
made the Abouna supreme head of all matters ; the Itcheque 
second with residence at the great national monastery of 
Debra Libanos ; and the High Priest third in the heirarchy. 

The wealth and influence of the Church are enormous, 
a state of affairs due to the prescience of Tekla Hai- 
manot to whom reference has already been made. ‘This 
remarkable man is supposed to have negotiated the restora- 
tion of the Solomonean line after three hundred years 
of deposition, and his modest price seems to have been a 
perpetual grant to the Church of one-third of the country. 
As a result the extent of the Church lands is tremendous : 


Religion & the Church 127 


not only do monasteries, convents, and churches cover the 
country but great areas belong to them, and the revenues 
accruing therefrom are utilized to maintain an almost 
unbelievable number of monks, priests, and debtera. The 
numbers of these people were given to me by Abyssinians 
as over a million—this I can scarcely believe, but I was 
assured on good authority that over a quarter of the male 
population are included in these categories of parasites. 
And parasites they are, for they serve no useful purpose 
and exist on the taxes raised from the people working on 
the land: they do no work themselves and are even exempted 
from military service. ‘They are on the whole ignorant 
and illiterate, for while some of them can read, very few 
indeed can write. 

Monks are not supposed to marry: priests are allowed 
to marry once, and in fact doso: debtera are free as laymen ; 
but I do not think that the lives of many of them could 
profitably he held up as examples for the people to follow. 

No examination and little or no preparation seem to be 
necessary for ordination: payment of moderate fees ranging 
up to $5 (about Ios. to-day) appears to be all that is required. 
In this direction matters do not seem to have progressed 
much since Bruce wrote in 1790 giving the following 
description of an ordination: “A number of men and 
children present themselves at a distance, and there stand 
from humility, not daring to approach him. He then 
asks who they are and they tell him they want to be deacons, 
(debtera). On this with a small iron cross on his hands 
after making two or three signs, he blows with his 
mouth twice or thrice upon them, saying, ‘ Let them be 
deacons.’ I saw once all the army of Begemder made 
deacons, just returned from shedding the blood of 10,000 
men, thus drawn up in Aylo Meidan, and the Abouna 
standing at the Church of St. Raphael, about a quarter of 
a mile distant from them. With these mingled about 
1000 women, who consequently, having part of the same 


128 Religion & the Church 


blast and brandishment of the Cross, were as good deacons 
as the rest.” 

It is highly regrettable in the interests of Abyssinia that 
the priesthood, being what they are, should exercise so 
much power and influence. This is no doubt attributable 
to a variety of causes, to tradition, wealth, land ownership, 
and also to the fact that they (or some of them ) are the only 
persons in the country who understand the ancient Geze 
language in which the Code of Law (the Fetha Nagast) and 
other similar works are written. ‘This gives them a great 
pull,” and one result is that they are an indispensable 
adjunct to all the judges, who are very much in their hands. 

They are, like the priesthood of other Churches through- 
out history, bitterly opposed to progress and to innovations, 
more so as regards changes in their own Church than as 
regards the introduction into the land of alien religions, 
strange to say. 

Thus for example a learned individual, a very religious 
layman whom I knew, had been accused by the priests of 
expounding the Gospels in a manner somewhat different to 
that generally accepted, and as a result he was imprisoned — 
for three years. His views on the subject of his own Church 
were instructive ! 

On the other hand they are by no means so intolerant to 
other religious beliefs and efforts in the country ; they are 
not fanatical, and if left alone and not interfered with are 
not markedly anti-foreign. Individually I have always 
found them quite pleasant and friendly, and I am bound to 
say that Mr. Wylde, who met a great many of them in 
various parts of the country, seemed vastly to prefer them to 
European missionaries. But as a body I think they are— 
to put it mildly—an unfortunate institution, and so far as 
their possessions are concerned, treatment on the lines 
adopted by our Henry VIII would seem to be overdue. 

Moslems, Jews, and others practice their religion in peace. 
I have seen religious processions of the followers of Islam 


[-aunjoziag “pw 4q ydvasojoyg)| ‘“puey oy} jo wyed oy} YIM UsyJeoq 1031¥ 194} ‘sStUNIpP Siq oY} pue syorjs Surdvsd yy 930N 
*Aayueased snorsyor uerurssAqy dAtssoidt AJ9A 9Y} JO JUOTUIUed ODOR Ue st ‘YIV OY} VIOJOG SulOULp PIAL JO JUOOsSIUTMMOI ‘9}1I JUOTOUR STY T, 


SISAING AHL AO AONVCG, AH], 


by ian) _ Gat 


Religion & the Church 129 


on their feast days pass through the streets shouting and 
singing completely free from molestation, and on the 
occasion of my last visit I saw a mosque which was on 
the verge of completion being constructed in one of the 
principal streets of Addis Ababa. 

It is rather remarkable that in spite of the bitter religious 
warfare in which they have been engaged for centuries 
Abyssinians should be so tolerant of their age-long enemies 
and should allow them to profess their faith openly as they 
do, when one considers the havoc wrought by Moslem 
invasions and Galla inroads. 

Even the Falasha Jewish ironworkers inthe north, who are 
doubly regarded with dislike and suspicion as being Jews 
and as being possessed of supernatural powers, are treated 
with tolerance, though avoided. 

No doubt this happy result is contributed to so far as 
Moslems are concerned by the fact that in Abyssinia they 
do not appear to be strict or fanatical—in pleasing contrast 
to their behaviour elsewhere. Mr. Wyman Bury tells a 
delightful story in exemplification of this latter frame of 
mind. A pilgrim to Mecca, a plump and prosperous Mos- 
Jem merchant at Aden in ordinary life, was gazing from the 
deck of the ship in rapt enthusiasm at Jeddah which against 
the sun-scorched country beyond looked like a stale bride- 
cake on a dust-heap. ‘“‘ Oh, the sacred land,” he crooned 
“the blessed land, where pigs and Christians cannot live.” 

The Abyssinians still have a church in Rome, a monastery 
in Jerusalem, and monasteries and Ethiopic texts were 
discovered in the Libyan desert by the German explorer 
Falls. 

The Abyssinian Church endeavours to maintain friendly 
relations with the other Christian communities : interest- 
ing examples of this are the missions sent to the Pope by the 
Emperor Menelik in 1906, and by the present Empress in 
1921. A mission was also in Jerusalem at the close of last 


year in connection with some ancient rights of the Abys- 
I 


130 Religion & the Church 


sinian Church regarding the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, 
and other holy places; under the Turkish regime these 
rights had been transferred to the Coptic community. 
According to a recent newspaper report the Ras is proposing 
to place the question of the protection of these holy places 
before the League of Nations—a strangely modern develop- 
ment. 

Possibly owing to ignorance and lack of education, the 
Church does not make any missionary efforts of its own 
amongst its subject races of Moslems and pagans, and — 
up to recent years it did not tolerate, or at all events wel- 
come, such efforts on the part of others. This is perhaps 
hardly surprising, for much of the missionary enterprise 
known to the Abyssinians had mingled politics with religious 
efforts, and had interfered in matters which had better have 
been left alone. 

The Jesuits were expelled in 1633, and some who would 
not go were killed. The Protestant missionaries were 
expelled in 1838. Theodore can hardly have been said to 
have welcomed missionaries, though so far from expelling 
them he chained them up and would not let them go. 
King John expelled them again in 1886, and Menelik barely 
tolerated them, although a French mission has been 
established continuously in Tigré for a good many years. 

But quite recently more missionaries have been allowed 
to start operations, especially in the Galla districts, and the 
Americans are particularly to the fore in this work. In 
addition, there is a French mission at Harrar and a convent 
at Addis Ababa, mainly educational and non-proselytizing, 
and a Swedish mission at the latter town of a similar 
character. 

So far I do not think there is much trace of success by any 
of these institutions, but on the other hand there is evidence 
to show (and my impressions are confirmed by American, 
Swedish, and French writers) that Islam, as in other parts of 
Africa, is making progress among the subject races in the ~ 


Religion & the Church 131 


country, both pagan and Christianized Gallas reverting to 
the faith of Mahomet in appreciable numbers. As is well 
known, practically every Moslem immigrant is a missioner, 
and I think this is a real danger to the peace and stability of 
the country. 

It would be a remarkable happening if the ancient Abys- 
sinian Church that has resisted attacks on its faith of so 
violent a character for so many years should succumb to the 
“ peaceful penetration” of Moslem teaching at this stage 
of its history. 

Such an event is not however likely to occur in the near 
future, for their religion seems sufficiently strongly implan- 
ted to hold its own among the Abyssinians, and even to sway 
the national policy. For example, it was the late Emperor 
Lej Yasu’s leanings to Islam, rather than his other manifold 
failings, that caused his downfall in 1916. He was un- 
doubtedly popular with the rank and file of the army and 
with a certain section of the people, but when the national 
institution was in danger concerted action drove him from 
power. 


CHAPTER XII 
Religious Practice & Pageantry 


S I have already said, the number of their 
churches is legion, and to all are attached many 
priests who live in remarkably simple—to put it 
mildly—accommodation in the precincts. 

The buildings themselves are quite unpretentious, being 
small circular erections built of the stone that abounds 
everywhere in the country, covered with pointed thatched 
roofs surmounted by a cross on the points of which ostrich 
eggs are generally impaled. ‘The Abyssinians show a con- 
siderable measure of reverence to their churches, outwardly 
at all event. I have frequently seen men of importance 
stop their retinue when passing the church, dismount, 
and kiss the earth. 

The principal modern church in Abyssinia is that of St. 
George, the patron saint of Abyssinia, at Addis Ababa, 
which has only recently been completed. It is a stone-built 
edifice, octagonal in shape, surmounted by a large central 


dome ; it is of no particular style of architecture, though it~ 


approximates to the Greek, and externally it is not very 
pleasing to the eye. 

The Abouna was kind enough to arrange for us to visit 
the church, and we were received with ceremony by a 
number of priests, who were exceedingly kind and enabled 
us to make a thorough inspection, and even allowed us to 
take some photographs (which unfortunately owing to the 
bad light did not come out). They showed us everything 
with great enthusiasm and begged us to return “ when a 

132 


ae 


Religious Practice & Pageantry 133 


great feast was in progress.” ‘The building consists of three 
portions, a sort of outer gallery, an inner court, and finally 
the Holy Place or Holy of Holies, an inner-chamber in the 
centre of the building in which rests the Tabot or repre- 
sentative of the Ark of the Covenant to which only the 
priests are allowed access. 

The priests threw open the doors of the Holy Place for us 
to see in ; it contained a kind of altar where the Sacraments 
are kept, and was surrounded by priests in very gorgeous 
vestments, burning incense and holding big crosses and 
crucifixes. 

In one of the galleries a service was proceeding. Two 
priests were beating with their hands very big drums made of 
wood and hide; many others were shaking their curious little 
brass cymbals ; and all were chanting, swaying their bodies, 
and slowly waving their praying-sticks. The time was 
really good, and the chant was rhythmic and tuneful, and 
not at all unmelodious. 

The galleries were profusely decorated with huge life- 
size paintings depicting mainly scenes from the Scriptures, 
scenes from the life of Christ, the miracles, etc. ; one dread- 
fully realistic picture of the Massacre of the Innocents was 
very striking. ‘There was also a portrait of the Emperor 
Menelik, and of other noted characters in Abyssinian 
history ; the likenesses of royal and other famous persons are 
frequently to be found on the walls or among the possessions 
of the principal churches. 

In this connection an amusing incident is told by Stern. 
King Sehala Salassie had been given by Captain Harris’ 
mission to the Court of Shoa, a portrait of Queen Victoria. 
This had been carefully guarded for many years amongst 
his treasures until his death, some time after which his 
successor, King Haile Malekot, presented it to the principal 
church at Ankobar where the people used to flock on grand 
festivities to worship it as the representation of the Virgin 


Mary ! 


134 Religious Practice & Pageantry 


The Tabot to which reference has been made is the 
object of much veneration and has to be blessed or consecrated 
prior to being used in the particular church to which it 1s 
allocated. In one case the priest in charge of the church 
had committed a murder, and the Tabot had to be sent up 
to Addis to be reconsecrated before it could be used again. 

The most prominent features of the practice of their 
religion are the fasts, feasts, and pageants; and each of these 
is sufficiently remarkable. A very large part of the year— 
about 150 days—falls under the category of fast or feast, 
and both are strictly observed. During their fasts they are 
forbidden not only meat, but also butter and milk and eggs, 
and it is really surprising to see to what an extent this rigid 
abstinence is followed, especially as the fasting periods are 
lengthy, that prior to Easter lasting forty days. 

For a day or so immediately prior to the main feast, that is 
at the end of a long period of fasting, they eat nothing at all, 
and so far do they carry this rule that sometimes one or two 
of our older servants have become so weak that they have 
had to go home and remain in bed, so exhausted were they. 

On Wednesdays and Fridays they eat no meat, and 
wherever they are or whatever they are doing they adhere 
firmly to this rule. I was immensely struck by this when on 
trek ; for example, one day we had bought an ox for our men 
and on Thursday they had had a great raw meat banquet. 
The next day being Friday they would not touch an atom of 
the quantities of raw meat hung round the camp, though 
they had had a long and tiring march and had nothing else 
to eat. One of the men, who was really ill, would not drink 
a drop of the fresh milk we had prescribed for him, though 
he was excessively weak and could not retain anything else. 

Their feasts are observed just as whole-heartedly, and 
obviously with more enthusiasm, inasmuch as much eating 
and drinking and no work are the order of the day. Their 
main feasts are New Year, the Feast of the Cross or Maskal, 
Temkat (Epiphany) and Easter. 


Religious Practice & Pageantry 135 


Their New Year’s Day, the 1st Maskaram, falls on the 11th 
September (or the 12th in the European year preceding our 
Leap year) and isa great feast, and of course a general holiday, 
the religious side of which is strongly marked, the Empress 
and the Court attending the Church of St. George in state. 

No work is done, and there is much eating, an oasis of 
plenty in the desert of fasting which starts again on the 
day after New Year’s Day, and continues until the end of the 
month. Bands of grown-up people and groups of children 
wander round serenading the different houses, and although 
their intentions are doubtless of the best, the sounds they 
produce leave much to be desired from the point of view of 
harmony. One New Year’s Day I found a party of small 
things in our grounds, girls from three to ten years old, and 
they came right up to the house chanting and beating their 
hands together in time, a little frightened of the reception 
they might get. But when a few coins appeared, smiles 
beamed on every face, and they made their pretty little 
bows, touching the ground with their heads, much to our 
relief refraining from an “ encore.” 

Riding back from the town that afternoon, we were way- 
laid by an enthusiastic band of adult musicians who ran 
beside our ponies chanting. One of them in his enthusiasm 
to keep just ahead of us forgot to use his eyes and fell 
headlong into a ditch full of mud and water, his downfall 
being greeted with shouts of laughter from his friends, but 
in no way damping his or his companions’ musical ardour. 

We addressed the usual letters of good wishes to our 
Abyssinian friends on this day, and in every case received 
delightful replies, which is characteristic of the scrupulous 
politeness of the Abyssinians in these matters. I give 
the reply sent to me by the Empress on one of these occa- 
sions. (See p. 136.) 

At the end of September is held the Feast of Maskal. 
There are three separate functions during the week in this 
connection, firstly the Dance of the Priests, 21st September, 


er es we mtd 
C9 F: QOLA 2: 


Pry aet ey 3 
Hun CO 
RCOAT ATE 
ao ys wb sh AIPQ2I 
‘3 FAO -AAOUA DT OUT 
AGVEU-_GAUL@: CFV 
Fil Oa WALA: ALON I $IG 


Facsimile of a letter from the Empress of Abyssinia to the Author. 


Fa aree 


TRANSLATION OF LETTER FROM THE EMPRESS. 


From the Empress Zanditu, 


Daughter of Menelik the Second, the Conqueror and the 
Lion of Juda, the Elect of God, King of Kings of Ethiopia. 


To Mr. Rey. 
Salutations be unto you. 

I am in receipt of your friendly letter congratulating me 
upon the celebration of our New Year, and I sincerely wish that 
we might live and enjoy together the happiness and blessings of 
the coming New Year. Thank you for your kind thought. 

Written in Addis Ababa. 
3rd Maskaram, 1912. (In our 
Calendar 14th September, 1919). 


Religious Practice & Pageantry 137 


then the Dance of the Cross, 27th September, which 
includes a fantasia in which thousands of mounted troops 
take part, and finally the great Gebbur at which 17,000 to 
18,000 men are fed (28th September). 

On the day of the Dance of the Cross, after dinner we 
could see from our verandah the whole country for miles in 
every direction dotted with bonfires—a wonderful sight. 
Every Abyssinian must light something on this night, and 
they seemed to have done it pretty thoroughly ; even high 
up in the mountains far away one could see the little points 
of light everywhere. 

The Feast of the Maskal itself which took place on the 
next day is mainly remarkable for the great banquet ; this 
I have described elsewhere, and though it is held on a 
religious festival the religious nature of it is less apparent. 

Temkat (18th, 19th, and 2oth of January) is perhaps the 
most beautiful and remarkable of their various pageants, and 
I will accordingly endeavour to give some idea of this 
ceremony, unique as it probably is. 

It is difficult in mere words to do justice to the really 
wonderful pageantry attendant on these religious festivals. 
Their historical significance alone is worthy of the pen of a 
Gibbon, for they are probably some 3000 years old in some of 
their features, and half-closing one’s eyes it is possible to 
imagine the picture before one to be that of David, his 
priests, and his courtiers dancing before the ark, as the 
_ priests in their centuries-old vestments sway and swing 
before the modern representation of the Ark of the Coven- 
ant. And the colouring—the gorgeous medley of crimson 
and purple and yellow and green cloaks of the priests, their 
gold and silver croziers, crowns, and censers, the soft thrum- 
ming of the huge old drums, the feathery spirals of sweet- 
smelling incense curling lazily up into the air—all framed 
in a grand setting of green trees and running water, while 
above out of a brilliant blue sky the blazing African sun 
sparkles and glitters on all the medley of gold and silver and 


138 Religious Practice & Pageantry 


colour below, and—strange contrast—further off, on the 
rifles of the thousand watching troops and their loose white 
toga-like chammas. 

Especially do these considerations apply to the second 
day of Temkat, the blessing of the waters. On the first day 
the Tabot is borne from the Church of St. George in the 
midst of an immense procession of chiefs, priests, soldiers, 
banner bearers, and musicians, through the town to the 
spot by the river which has been selected for the ensuing 
day’s ceremony. The procession itself is sufficiently remark- 
able, and the inhabitants of the city crowd the roads to 
watch the brilliant stream of colour flow past, their shrill, 
tremulous “ el-el-to ” sounding to our ears a strange sub- 
stitute for the cheers of a crowd in our own countries. 

The procession winds its way through the town and 
beyond it to the river, and there tents are pitched, the Tabot 
is deposited within one of them, priests take up their 
quarters in others, soldiery in yet others, and with thou- 
sands of Abyssinians spend the night on the spot in readiness 
for the morning’s function which, commencing soon after 
daybreak (between 6 and 6.30), lasts well on to noon. 

The spot seemed to have been chosen so as to lend 
additional enchantment to the ceremony. ‘The river 
shrunken to a stream now in the middle of the dry season 
flowed smoothly over huge rocks and boulders round a 
curve, on between high banks sloping for several hundreds 
of yards upwards and away. Part of the stream had been | 
dammed so as to form a pool just by a natural platform of 
grass and trees on the very edge of the waters, and here the 
principal actors were grouped, whilst above and around 
them thousands and thousands of spectators in rank after 
rank seemed but to act as a conductor to focus the eye on to 
the scene being enacted below. Here was Ras Tafari in his 
robes of state under a magnificent gold-fringed umbrella— 
here were the great officers of State with their velvet and 
silk cloaks, their silken shirts, and their great curved gold- 


Religious Practice & Pageantry 139 


scabbarded swords. And here were the priests dazzling 
one’s eyes by the brilliance of their apparel and their 
accessories. 

Standing a little way up the river-bank amid a small knot 
of Europeans lost in the sea of Abyssinians, it was almost 
hypnotizing to watch the scene. The drums beaten softly 
with the palms of the hands accompanied the low chanting 
of the priests and the rhythmical waving of their praying- 
sticks, while the fumes from the incense burners crept 
upwards to mingle with the almost mysterious mistiness of 
the early morning sunlight. 

The water was eventually blessed, and some of it in a 
great gold dish carried to the Ras, who was sprinkled with it 
—rebaptized in fact—with many rites and much ceremony. 
Other notables were similarly honoured, and then water was 
thrown over the nearest of the waiting thousands. Those 
beyond surged forward to receive their share, and the 
pressure of the immense multitude must have been enor- 
mous, but their orderliness was no less remarkable, and no 
untoward incidents occurred. 

With some further chanting the first portion of the 
ceremony came to an end, and the scene was changed to the 
great open plain between the town and the Foreign Lega- 
tions, which is used as review ground, polo field, and race- 
course. In solemn procession ruler, courtiers, priests, and 
soldiers wended their way up from the banks of the little 
stream, up through rocky paths and grassy slopes towards 
the centre of the plain, whilst thousands and thousands of 
the people poured in a great stream all round them to take 
their share in the further pageantry. On our sure-footed 
little ponies we were swept along in the moving masses, all 
cheery and good tempered, dressed in their clean white 
chammas, which had been washed for the occasion in 
the river the day before. With the help of a balderabba we 
were able to take a short cut to the scene of the next step in 
the proceedings, and seated on chairs round beautifully 


140 Religious Practice & Pageantry 


coloured Persian and Indian rugs in front of a silk-lined tent 
which sheltered the throne from the fast warming rays of 
the sun, we watched amid the waiting multitudes the arrival 
of the royal procession and of fresh throngs, not the least 
remarkable members of which were a mounted band of 
wild-looking men clothed in scarlet robes and playing strange 
instruments, whilst their shaggy little ponies curveted and 
plunged like mad things. 

Dressed in his magnificent Abyssinian robes, carrying a 
modern rifle and mounted on a wonderfully caparisoned 
black mule, Ras Tafari rode slowly up to the tent and took 
his seat on the throne surrounded by hundreds of gorgeously 
clad notables, and facing what was perhaps the most striking 
contingent of all, the priests, ranged on three sides of a 
square in front of the throne. Those on the opposite side 
of the square were all in white ; those on the right and left 
wore robes of such dazzling colouring that in the sun’s 
bright rays it almost hurt one’s eyes to look at them. Red, 
blue, green, orange, purple, every imaginable colour, thickly 
covered with heavy gold and silver embroideries, and gold 
ornaments and head-dresses. And as if this orgy of colour 
were not enough, servants held scores of gaudy coloured 
gold-embroidered and much befringed and tasselled um- 
brellas over them. 

Many of the priests carried magnificent crosses of gold 
and silver, others their long silver or ivory-handled praying- 
sticks,whilst some held various musical bell-like instruments, 
and about half a dozen managed large drums—things about 
three feet high made of silver with copper bands. Particu- 
larly striking were the dresses of ten young boys bearing 
golden crowns, symbolical of the ten commandments ; 
while the Tabots brought from the neighbouring churches 
were very gorgeously bedecked. It was a wonderful and 
barbaric sight. 

And then the Dance of the Priests began. Low chanting 
without music at first, followed by slow graceful movements 


Religious Practice & Pageantry 141 


of all their hundreds of arms in fine time to the rhythm, then 
the little bell cymbals joined in, and finally the big drums. 

All this time the long lines of priests were advancing and 
retiring, turning this way and that, their bodies swaying to 
the music. The time got quicker and quicker, others joined 
in, their movements became accentuated and their voices 
rose to a climax ; then quite suddenly sound and movement 
ceased and the long lines were quite still. 

After this, passages were read from enormous silver- 
covered Bibles, and with a final boom of the drums it was all 
over—a morning’s journey back through the centuries, 
probably unique in the world in its character. 

The Abyssinian Easter falls a week later than our own 
and is the occasion of great feasting ; much fifle firing takes 
place the night before (or used to two years agOwhen ammu- 
nition was more plentiful), and much eating and drinking, 
on the day itself. And I am bound to say they must need it, 
for they have been fasting for forty days, and for the two 
previous days have eaten nothing at all. 

In accordance with the custom, we gave all our servants 
the usual presents on these occasions : they always seemed 
very pleased and generally came up en masse to thank us, 
one of them making a little speech for the rest, and 
presenting us with bunches of flowers. 

Bands of priests visit the principal houses, soliciting alms, 
and I find the following description of one of these visits 
in my diary :— 


“Soon after breakfast a party of about five priests accom- 
panied by attendants came up the drive, stationed them- 
selves in front of the house, and began to sing and ring bells 
to wish us a prosperous Easter. Some of the priests wore 
their gorgeous vestments, and all had brilliant green or red 
silk parasols fringed with gold braid. We sent them out a 
small offering which appeared to please them very much. 

“ ‘Then they blessed a lot of long grass they had, and gave 
it to us and we distributed it amongst the staff. Every 


142 Religious Practice & Pageantry 


servant there tied his piece of grass tightly round his head 
and wore it all day—they all seemed highly delighted.” 


But in spite of their strict observance of feasts and their 
pride in the fact of their being Christians, I cannot really 
think that they could in any sense of the word be described 
as a really religious people, their lives being in no way a 
reflection of their theoretical beliefs. Their religion is 
overlaid with a thick layer of superstition, some of which is 
merely curious, but some apt to have dangerous results. 
Thus they wear little charms and amulets suspended round 
their necks by a silken cord (never leather which is used by 
Mohammedans for this purpose); they have a strong 
belief in the power of the “evil eye”; they will not look 
at a person eating, they will not start on journeys on certain 
days, and they believe that certain houses are inhabited by 
evil spirits and will not live in them. 

We came across some curious examples of this latter 
superstition. ‘Two important Abyssinian nobles had built 
in their grounds quite nice stone and mortar houses in the 
European style. ‘These houses were lying empty, and their 
owners were living in native built twkuls, for the reason 
that their tame priests had told them that evil would befall 
them if they moved into their new residences. 

Another and more serious example was that of a chief 
who was very ill with pneumonia. He was just getting over 
it when in the middle of one night his priest told him that he 
had had a vision to the effect that if he did not move at 
once into his other house some miles away he would die. 
So on a bitterly cold night the poor old gentleman was 
removed to his other place, a course of action which, needless 
to say, resulted in his death. 

They still believe in the efficacy of writing the sick 
person’s name on a certain kind of tree; and one of our 
friends told me that his own *‘ boy ” had done this when he 
(my friend) was ill, and attributed his recovery entirely to 


Religious Practice & Pageantry 143 


this cause. Another European who was very ill was cured 
(so said his “‘ boy ”) by the latter obtaining from a native 
medicine-man a piece of paper upon which the sick man’s 
name was written. The “boy” had actually paid the 
medicine-man the (for him) very large sum of three dollars 
for the paper. 


CHAPTER XIII 
Addis Ababa 


BOUT twenty-seven years ago, just before his 
great conflict with the Italians, Menelik was 
camped in the Entoto Hills in the neighbourhood 
of Addis Ababa, a small township founded by 

him some four years previously, collecting his armies 
for the forthcoming struggle. He was apparently much 
impressed by the many advantages possessed by this 
delightful situation, and realizing that its sheltered 
position and pleasant climate, its abundance of trees and 
ample water supply would all contribute to the facilities 
and amenities of a great city, he made the pronouncement 
that should his expedition prove successful he would return 
to his camping-place and convert it into his capital. As 
is well known fortune crowned his arms with victory, and 
in 1896 Menelik carried out his pledge and established 
himself and his followers on the southern slopes of the 
picturesque hills which, rising some 1500 feet higher, 
dominate the 8000 foot tableland of Entoto, naming the 
place Addis Ababa, or the New Flower. And from this 
developed what is now the largest and most prosperous 
town in Abyssinia, the seat of government, the centre of 
the commercial life of the country, and the terminus of 
the 500-mile railway from the coast. 

Addis Ababa was the successor to a number of other 
towns, each of which, as the seat of the Emperor of the 
day, had been regarded as the capital of the country. 
The Imperial residence had, however, been subject to 

144 


Addis Ababa T45 


frequent change, partly on account of the transfer of the 
supreme overlordship from one of the kingdoms of the 
country to another, and partly on account of the fact 
that after a king and his army had resided in a place for 
any length of time every tree for miles around had vanished. 

Addis bade fair to be no exception to the general rule, 
for shortly after its foundation the city was threatened 
with a wood famine which, in the ordinary course of events, 
would have caused its extinction and removal elsewhere. 
The trees in and around the beautiful place rapidly dis- 
appeared before the improvident demands for firewood and 
building material made by the King’s large and extravagant 
army, and the new capital began to become bare and 
shadeless. But Menelik was no ordinary African monarch, 
and saved the situation by a wholesale introduction of 
eucalyptus or blue gum trees, issuing orders that they 
were to be planted by everyone, and that cutting was 
to be regulated. These trees grow in the climate of 
Abyssinia with the most remarkable rapidity, increasing 
by as much as twelve feet in height in a single year in some 
places, and so in a few years the devastated hills reverted 
once more to their original condition, and the town was 
again bowered in foliage, foliage which lasts the whole 
year round. 

The first distant glimpses of Addis Ababa which the 
traveller obtains to-day as he winds his circuitous way 
upwards towards the city are very attractive. So extensive 
and so dense are the woods in which it lies that one seems to 
be about to enter a forest, and it is only on a near approach 
to the town that houses begin to stand out amongst the trees, 
and the rays of the sun sparkling and glittering on the metal 
roofs and the white-washed walls make one realize that a 
town, and an extensive one at that, is hidden in the foliage. 

Gradually as one gets nearer and nearer the place begins 
to take shape; the few white walls thrown into relief by 


the sun are seen to be but islands in a sea of lesser and 
K 


146 Addis Ababa 


browner habitations ; two large buildings standing on higher 
ground than the rest detach themselves from the general 
outline, and stand out dominating the immense numbers of 
houses and huts that struggle through the woods for miles ; 
and as he draws near to the end of his journey the extra- 
ordinary mixture of buildings of every kind of which Addis 
is composed begins to make its striking first impression on the 
traveller’s mind. 

Addis is like no other African town that I have seen; 
without having any great individuality, it has features 
which are all its own, and its beauties and ugliness, its traces 
of modern progressive effort and eastern backwardness, its 
combination of sylvan glades and half-constructed streets, 
make up a picture of contrast, which is quite typical of the 
people whom it shelters. 

The town which is traversed by two rivers,the Kabana and 
a branch of the Akaki, straggles over a very considerable area 
several miles in extent, centring round an enormous open 
market-place from which roads or tracks radiate in all 
directions. All round the market-place are the native 
stalls and booths, the more pretentious shops of the Greeks, 
Armenians and better class Indians, and the dilapidated 
buildings of the Custom House. One of the few real roads 
in the town runs from here to the railway station, about a 
mile and a half away to the south-east, and on this road are 
to be found the two hotels of which the place boasts, the 
substantial buildings of the Bank of Abyssinia, and the 
offices and go-downs of the Tobacco Régie. A little way 
from the market-place on the opposite western side stands the 
Church of St. George, the one piece of architecture in Addis, 
and still a little further away to the north-east on a yet 
higher eminence is the Gebbi, a series of buildings which 
combine to house the Palace and Government Offices. 
Some miles beyond here to the south of the town lies the 
so-called Legation quarter where all the Foreign Legations _ 
have their lovely grounds, and to reach them one crosses the 


Addis Ababa 147 


polo-ground and race-course, a huge open space gifted by 
King Menelik to the Imperial Club. 

In between, around, and beyond all these main 
points are thousands of tuvkuls with their mud walls and 
thatched roofs, which make a pleasant contrast to the rather 
shoddy and glaring houses of the Greeks, built of stone 
and roofed with corrugated iron, which are mostly 
to be found in the streets bordering on the market- 
place. 

The roads and streets, or rather the open spaces which 
ought to be roads or streets, many of which are mainly loose 
boulders and earth, are generally very wide, an uncommon 
and pleasing feature. This characteristic, added to the 
trees which are to be found everywhere in leaf the whole 
year round, and the high-banked rivers and watercourses 
which intersect the town in every direction, make what 
might well be rather a sordid conglomeration into a really 
fascinating township. 

From an architectural or artistic point of view there is 
unfortunately nothing to be seen in Addis—the town being 
a new one no ancient buildings or monuments of historical 
interest are to be found such as exist in other parts of 
Abyssinia. The only exception that I know of is the 
dilapidated ruin of a Portuguese church some centuries old 
on the hills lying behind the Foreign Legations, but even 
this is in too advanced a state of decay to make it of much 
interest. 

From almost every point of the town the Gebbi (or 
palace) meets the eye. Constructed on the crest of a hill it 
dominates the whole town, and at night especially, when it is 
brilliantly illuminated, it is a guiding point to travellers for 
miles. It has many attractions, not the least of these being 
some very fine lions kept in cages close to the royal reception 
hall. These animals used, I am told, to roam about the 
palace grounds at their own sweet will, until one day some 
children teased them—and then “there was not one.” 


148 Addis Ababa 


So after that cages were introduced, greatly I believe to the 
relief of some of the foreign visitors. 

And as the Gebbi is the centre of the governing and 
political life of the city so the market-place, as the centre 
of the commercial life of the town, is a seething mass of 
interesting movement. Covering an immense area, and 
placed in the very midst of the town, all roads converge 
upon it, and progress through the teeming thousands who 
are to be found there every day is by no means a feat to be 
undertaken lightly. But it is a remarkable and interesting 
sight. | 

In the early morning from every direction strings of 
natives are to be seen threading their way towards the 
market-place with their goods for the day’s sales. Here is to 
be met a small colony of Gallas in their dirty rags, the women 
Jaden with packets of dung-cakes and earthenware water- 
pots, the donkeys piled high with the heavier goods, the 
men strolling along burdened only with a light spear and a 
long stick, the children shouting at and beating their 
unfortunate animals ; there an Abyssinian party, the women 
carrying little or nothing, the donkeys bearing all the goods, 
and the men armed with the inevitable rifle, busily engaged 
in doing nothing except perhaps wrestling with a refactory 
ram. And sooner or later, with halts for adjusting slipped 
loads, or for gossip, or for quarrelling, they all arrive at 
their destination, the great red-earthed centre of the “‘ New 
Flower.” 

On every side stretch dilapidated uncovered booths 
made of heaps of stones, on which are to be found most 
things necessary to meet the wants of the masses of the 
population. Coffee, honey, ghz, grains of various kinds, salt, 
peppers of different varieties, rough grass baskets, earthen- 
ware pots of all shapes and sizes, coloured straws for the 
manufacture of the more delicate baskets, native tanned 
leathers, native metal work, firewood, hay, dung-cakes, 
bread—all the many local products of the district, in fact— 


Addis Ababa IAQ 


are here exposed for sale together with imported cotton 
piece goods, cottons and silks for weaving, and any amount of 
trashy European bric-d-brac. Sheep and cattle too are 
bought here, and the confusion caused by the heterogeneous 
mass of goods and salesmen is added to by the donkeys and 
mules standing and lying about, on the poor scarred backs of 
which all the native produce has been brought in from the 
outlying districts. ‘These unfortunate animals, footsore, 
sore-backed and weary, are to be seen in hundreds, waiting 
patiently to be loaded up for the return journey with the 
results of their masters’ marketing. 

It happened to be our fate to be going out of the 
town one morning just at the time when the densest of 
the throngs were pouring along the road leading into 
the market-place. We had discovered amongst the Ras’ 
possessions the original Wolseley motor-car which had 
been driven by Captain Bentley in 1907 from the coast 
to Addis and there presented to Menelik—an amazing feat 
which occupied ten months, and which seems incredible to 
anyone who has been over the terrific country which Bentley 
came through. We were anxious to try this historic car 
(the first that had ever entered Abyssinia), and after a day or 
two’s preparation the car, driven by a gentleman of doubtful 
origin but reckless courage, called for us and we set out on 
our four miles drive. 

The “ road ” was “ under repair ”—in other words, from 
a possible track it had been converted into a miniature 
Abyssinia, huge trenches had been dug across it in places to 
drain it, piles of stones were scattered in every direction, 
loose boulders and great holes made up the remaining 
surface. Into all this, which was covered with a teeming 
mass of men and animals coming into market, did our driver 
hurl the car, always at top speed, to the accompaniment of 
an unintermittent roar from the hooter sounded by a small 
boy clinging anxiously to the side of the car. We drove 
through and over everything—crashed into piles of stones, 


150 Addis Ababa 
fell into holes, jerking, bumping, and lurching drunkenly 


along. Everything fled in wild confusion before us—sheep 
rushed headlong up banks and into ditches, ponies reared 
and bolted, mules and donkeys were charged by us, lost 
their loads, and galloped along in front or beside us—and 
always quite unperturbed our Jehu ploughed along, stop- 
ping or turning for nothing, amid the screams of women 
and children, the curses of the people whose animals fled 
before us and the laughter of the others who escaped disaster. 
We were sore with bumping, breathless from our efforts to 
hold on, and almost hysterical with laughter when we arrived, 
but we came to the conclusion that in future ponies would 
be good enough for us—a resolution I may say to which we 
strictly adhered. 

The population of the town is estimated to consist in 
normal times of about 60,000 persons, this number being 
considerably augmented on the occasions of the great feasts 
by the arrival of chiefs from the outlying districts with 
their retinues of thousands of soldiers. In addition to the 
native population there are several hundreds of Arabs, 
Indians, Syrians, Armenians, and Greeks, the European 
section of this mixed alien community numbering in all 
probably about 300 persons. 

Although the town has considerably increased in size 
within the last few years, and new shops and huts are 
continually being added, there is a great shortage of houses — 
suitable for Europeans either in the town itself or in 
the outskirts, and should the European colony continue to 
increase, the new arrivals will be obliged to build their own 
homes. 

Such houses as are available are exceedingly expensive, 
£200 to {300 a year for quite a small house, almost a cottage, 
being quite an ordinary figure. Building is very costly, 
mainly owing to the extortionate price of all imported 
materials, and land commands an almost incredible value, 
costing from half a dollar to four dollars per metre. 


Addis Ababa 151 


We were fortunate enough on the occasion of our first 
visit to be able to secure the Russian Legation for our use, 
as the Chargé d’Affaires was leaving, and in the then chaotic | 
condition of Russian affairs it was unlikely that a successor 
to our good friend M. Winogradoff would be forthcoming. 
This was a delightful place ; a large rambling one-storied 
building, containing some large lofty rooms with well-laid 
parquet floors, lying in about fifty acres of well-wooded 
grounds just outside the town ; and we were indeed lucky 
to obtain it, for nothing else of any kind was available, and 
failing this our fate would probably have been to remain at 
the Hotel, a prospect which filled us with dismay as the wells 
had dried up there, and there was not water enough for 
our own needs or for our ponies. 

The Europeans’ houses in Addis are mostly poorly con- 
structed, and built of stone, as that material is readily 
available almost everywhere in large quantities. They are, 
as already pointed out in connection with most other 
buildings in Addis, roofed with that most unpleasant of all 
coverings, corrugated iron, the only merit of which is that 
it keeps out the rain when new and if well put up. But as 
this latter condition does not appear to be complied with, 
even the single merit I have referred to does not strike one, 
though trickles of water through the ceilings do. The noise of 
the heavy tropical rains on the iron is deafening, it is hot in 
the daytime and cold at night, and always a horrible eye-sore. 
Why thatching has not been more generally adopted latterly 
I am at a loss to imagine—it is much more suitable to the 
country, much pleasanter to live under, and not more costly. 

A few well-built stone houses exist, such as the British 
and Italian Legations, the Greek Consulate, the Bank of 
Abyssinia, the home of the Abouna, etc., but the majority 
of the houses, shops, etc., are indifferently constructed of 
stone and mud, and they do not show signs of possessing any 
great durability. The ceilings nowadays are sometimes 
made of wood, but more often consist of strips of cotton 


152 Addis Ababa 


sheeting sewn together and stretched across, fixed by wooden 
battens and painted white, and sometimes accompanied by 
an elaborate ornamentation in colours. Happily one still 
finds some of the old-fashioned cone-shaped ceilings, made 
of cedar sticks bound together by thick grass-rope artisti- 
cally intertwisted with red, white, and blue material. 

Of the two hotels—the Hotel de France and the Hotel 
Imperial—it is the latter to which the English traveller 
invariably gives his patronage. ‘This hotel was originally 
constructed by the Empress Taitu, wife of the Emperor 
Menelik, as an investment or speculation which her suc- 
cessors must now find very profitable, and it is said to have 
been largely furnished with the numerous gifts of furni- 
ture, etc., presented to her by various European powers. 
After a generous distribution of Keating’s it is possible to 
settle there not too uncomfortably ; ample accommodation 
(including a bathroom) is to be had; the bedrooms are 
situated on the first floor and all open on to a wide balcony 
verandah which surrounds the building, from which a 
magnificent view can be had over the mountains and plains 
stretching for miles in every direction. 

It is I think without exception the most beautiful view of 
and in Addis, and it was always a moot point with us as to - 
which moment of the day or night gave us the more delight- 
ful picture. Below us on every side stretched the town half 
hidden in its trees, with here and there a white stone build- . 
ing standing out from amongst the tukuls ; for miles away 
on the west lay a great rolling plain dotted with trees and 
patches of cultivation; and on every side were line upon 
line of mountain-tops shading off in a wonderful variety of 
mauve-brown colouring until far away in the distance to the 
south could be seen the summit of great Mt. Zequala, a 
landmark for many days’ march all around. In the early 
morning the rising sun bathed everything in a sort of pale 
pink light, against which the feathery curls of smoke from 
the thousands of huts and the mist from the river-banks 


SRowo es. 


Ppl 


rats er a - 


fe 


A “ ROAD ”’ IN THE ARUSSI MOUNTAINS. 
The ‘‘ road’’ (marked with a cross) is seen leading upwards in the left-hand top corner. Mules 
had to be unloaded, the packs man-handled to the top, and the animals afterwards hauled up. 
THE AUTHOR AND HIS WIFE. 


Shewing types of Abyssinian ponies. The grey (which was used for riding, driving, polo, steeple- 
chasing and trekking) is more typically Abyssinian. The bay was a native of the 
province of Gojam. 


1) fn Oe Clr 
u, i | Sirs 
aero ere 


p : | ~~ oye 


\ Addis Ababa 153 


showed grey and fairylike amid the dark green of the trees. 
And at night after the fiery glow of the setting sun had first 
turned the western mountains blood red and then left them 
dark purple and brown when it dropped behind them, the 
gorgeous African moon bathed everything in brilliant silver, 
thrown up and brightened by black patches of shadow, and 
the busy hum of the day sank and gave place to the noises of 
the night. 

And such a medley of sound it was. The roaring 
of the lions at the palace would dominate everything for a 
while, then if they paused some hyenas or jackals would 
come slinking up from the river after the evening slaking 
of their thirst, setting all the pariah dogs in the town barking 
in impotent fury, and themselves howling and crying over 
their gruesome meal of disinterred corpses from the grave- 
yard, or the remains of a pack animal that had died during 
the day on its journey to the market-place. ‘The grunting 
and grumbling of camels, the lowing of disturbed cattle, 
and the homely bray of a wakeful donkey, combined to vary 
the gamut of sound, until seemingly exhausted by their 
vocal efforts the animal inhabitants of the town would rest 
awhile, and silence wrapped the “‘ New Flower” until the 
dawning of a new day. 

As I have already mentioned, the Abyssinians are great 
sportsmen, and consequently the horse and mule market 
is always a source of attraction to them. It is held in an 
open space a little way out of the town near the station, 
Saturday being the favourite day for patrons of this Abys- 
sinian ‘T’attersall’s. 

Here the horse-coper gallops his poor animal madly up and 
down for the inspection of a would-be purchaser, until there 
is little breath left in the beast and his mouth is dripping 
with blood on account of the brutal bit used. Formerly 
many decent horses might be picked up here at reasonable 
_ prices, but now European competition has changed this, 
and the prices asked for wretched-looking mounts are 


154 Addis Ababa 


ridiculous. Consequently those who require horses find it 
more profitable to send out into the country to bring in a 
batch, and after selecting the best for their stable sell the 
others to their less knowing brethren. 

The dogs are almost as all pervading (in every sense of the 
word) as their prototypes used to be in Constantinople. 
They are of a long-coated reddish-coloured variety (when 
they have any coat), but they are mostly hairless mangy 
snarling beasts, that lie about asleep in the sun by hundreds 
everywhere, and never think of moving for a passer-by ; 
one’s horse carefully picks his way between them, for a false 
step means an uproar, and unless the rider is armed with a 
good cutting whip the chances of a bite are not too remote. 
In the evening they are fed by the Indian butchers on their 
surplus stocks, after which they begin to wake up and take 
an interest in things, and incidentally make themselves a 
general nuisance. But like most other beasts they have 
their uses, as no doubt but for their scavenging and cleaning 
up the town would be even dirtier than it already is. 

About a mile from the centre of the town at Filoha are 
situated the hot springs, which send up a continual cloud of 
steam; these are strongly impregnated with sulphur, and 
are supposed to be good for many ailments, more particu- 
larly for diseases of the skin. 

Here King Menelik constructed some buildings contain- 
ing large stone baths, into which the bathers descend by 
steps; other buildings have since been added and the 
general arrangements improved. One of these baths is 
specially kept for the use of Europeans, and is I believe 
frequented by the Greeks and Armenians to a fair extent. 
Many people send for this hot water in which to bathe if 
suffering from rheumatism, or other similar ailments, and 
so great is the temperature at which it issues from the springs 
that although when we used it it had to be brought over a 
mile in open tins on the backs of mules, it was so hot when it 
arrived that cold water had to be added before it could be 


Addis Ababa I55 


used. It is also given to horses now and again, and serves 
as a useful form of medicine for them. 

My wife was anxious to see the baths and springs, es- 
pecially as no one seemed to know very much about them, 
and so she went off one day with our Abyssinian interpreter 
to have a look over them. Some difficulty was made about 
going in, but this was overcome by the interpreter, and 
after being assured that the baths were empty she sallied in. 
The place was rather dark and steamy, and coming out of 
the bright sunlight she was for a moment or two unable to 
see clearly. Then, however, she found to her consternation 
that the place was occupied by native men and women of 
both sexes in a state of nature. Apparently she hastily 
beat a retreat and was shown into another bath which, this 
time, was occupied by men only, also in the same condition. 
The double shock drove her rapidly to the entrance again, 
and though no one else seemed to mind in the least, she felt 
that her visit had better come to an end. Goodness knows 
what she might have come across if she had ventured into 
the other rooms into which she was invited to return. 

Menelik’s progressive ideas are evidenced otherwise by 
the many miles of good macadamized roads he had com- 
menced all about the town. Many of these unfinished 
efforts, owing to the lapse of time and the great force of the 
tropical rains, have become almost, if not entirely, impass- 
able. This is much to be deprecated; unfortunately it 
is strongly in the character of the Abyssinians to construct, 
but not to upkeep, and also to commence and not to finish. 
All over the town one meets with houses—some of them 
originally fine structures—which have been begun, and then 
for some reason or another, perhaps owing to the lack of 
means, have been abandoned and left to crumble to pieces. 
Fortunately the Prince Regent has taken in hand the 
question of road-making in his capital, and quite a number 
of men were engaged, on our last visit, in improving and 
extending the highways. 


156 Addis Ababa 


Until quite recently there was no kind of organisation for 
the supply of water to the town, and there is little now, 
every house being dependent on its own well. Many of 
these become exhausted in the dry season, and great difficul- 
ties are met with by Europeans in obtaining sufficient water. 
Happily a few lucky people are the possessors of wells that 
do their duty all the year round, and these fortunates allow 
their neighbours to send their servants for this necessary of 
life. ‘The poorer class native is during the entire dry season 


practically dependent on the few wells in the outskirts of the | 


town, and there many dozens of women are to be seen at 
nearly every hour of the day patiently awaiting their turn to 
fill up their large water-pots by means of a mug, for drinking 


and cooking purposes ; they have to go to the rivers for their © 
washing. Considering that there is abundance of water in 


the hills of Entoto it is much to be regretted that some 
proper system of bringing it into the town for the benefit of 
these poor creatures is not inaugurated. Lately a few 
fountains have been set up but they are wholly inadequate, 


and the Prince Regent is considering the possibility of 


introducing a proper supply service on European lines. 
Drainage does not exist in the city; every house has its 
cesspool, and as in the more crowded centres the houses are 
built adjoining one another the cesspools are very numerous, 
and in most cases in close proximity to the wells ; why there 
is so little illness and so few epidemics is a marvel to all. 
The low-class natives in their ignorance show no modesty or 
sense of decency or cleanliness, and they relieve themselves 
outside their huts or in the roads at any place, or any time 
when nature urges, regardless of passers by of either sex or 


nationality. Consequently after seven or eight months dry — 
season, one rather looks forward to the coming fierce down- © 


pours, to bring freshness to the air and cleanliness to the 
town. 


CHAPTER XIV 
Language, Education, Literature & Art 


O educational controversy rages in Abyssinia 
for the simple reason that there is practically 
no education. ‘The Emperor Menelik certainly 
ma¢e a start in this direction for he promulgated 
a decree towards the end of his reign to the effect that all 
boys over twelve should attend school. But he forgot or 
omitted to provide such details as teachers and school 
buildings, and as his health began to fail shortly after- 
wards the system was practically stillborn. ‘There is one 
school in Addis Ababa which like so many things in 
Abyssinia has been begun and left unfinished, and a Director 
of Education, a well-educated and cultured Egyptian with 
a great command of languages. But as his flock consists of 
about thirty children it is to be feared that the results of his 
_ labours will not be very great, though that is no fault of his 
own. 
- Outside Addis, Dirre-Daoua and Harrar I doubt if there is 
- any attempt at education at all except for one or two foreign 
Mission Schools; practically no man knows his own age, 
very few people in the country (except a moderate number 
of the “ upper classes ” ) can read, and fewer still can write. 
This does not seem to trouble them at all, for the people 
have no need to write, and the higher personages have a 
secretary of sorts ; it is not necessary for them even to sign 
their letters, as signatures are always affixed by a stamp or 
seal. All have their private seals, and very quaint and 
elaborate some of them are; they are always placed at the 
157 


168 Education, Literature & Art 


bottom of the letter except in the case of the Empress, — 


whose seal figures at the top. 


The finger-print system is used quite extensively as a | 


means of signature amongst the people: for example, when 
a caravan of trade goods is being sent off into the country 
each nagadi who may be responsible for a certain number of 


mule loads has his list of goods read over to him and then © 
impresses his inky thumb as a receipt mark at the bottom of | 


the list. 


The Brothers and Sisters of the French Catholic Mission — 
in Addis carry out good educational work, though on a very | 


limited scale ; particularly did I admire the courage of the 
nuns, who with the help of only 1000 francs yearly as a 
subsidy from their own country carry on a home for the 
abandoned children of natives, feeding, clothing, and teach- 


ingthem. ‘hey keep the girls till they are of marriageable — 
age, when they endeavour, generally with success, to provide — 


them with suitable husbands. Baby boys are kept till they 
are about eight or nine years old, and then other homes are 
found for them. 

When we were first there the convent was directed by a 
Reverend Mother, a remarkable woman who had resided in 
the country for twenty-five years ; she practically started and, 
with the aid of four Sisters, ran this convent which supplied 
the only form of education to be found in the town suitable 
to European children, for whom she established separate 
classes. A number of the poorer class Italians, Armenians, 
and half-castes also attend this school, and by payment of a 
very small fee are instructed in all that is necessary for their 
upbringing. ‘Iwo of these Sisters also do all the nursing in 


the town, which takes up weeks together of their time 5 


this is extraordinarily valuable work, and very much appre- 
ciated and in request ; there is ample scope for a lay trained 
hospital nurse or two in addition. 


We found the Reverend Mother a most charming woman, 


and her great tact and policy of non-interference with the 


Education, Literature & Art 159 


religion of those professing beliefs other than her own has 
evidently been the reason for her general appreciation by 
both natives and Europeans. Her work is being carried 
on by her successor, and in addition there are now other 
means of elementary education for small European children. 

Recently a Greek school has been started, and it has an 
ever-growing attendance of children of this nationality, of 
which there are many representatives in most parts of 
Abyssinia, mostly of a rather poor class. But this school 
does not in any way attempt to spread education amongst 
the Abyssinians, and the efforts of the other institutions to 
do so are on so small a scale that they can, I fear, produce but 
an infinitesimal result. | 

A small number of the ruling class, and a few of the more 
humble members of society, can speak and write French ; 
_ English-speaking among the Abyssinians is very rare. This 
_ knowledge has generally been acquired (so far as French is 
_ concerned) by the efforts of the French Mission at Harrar, 
which has a school there, and turns out a certain number of 
_ French scholars. We met several chiefs of importance who 
could speak French fluently, while there are a number of 
interpreters and employes in the Post Office and Customs 
who can also talk this language. But I only came across two 
_ Abyssinians of position who knew English, Kantibar Gaberu 
and Atto (now Belata) Herui, both of whom were members 
of the diplomatic mission sent to England in 1919 to 
_ congratulate King George on the Allies’ victory in the Great 
War. They were, I should say, the best educated men we 
met in Abyssinia; they were well-read and had, which is 
more rare, apparently understood what they had read, so 
that being unusually intelligent into the bargain, they were 
interesting to meet. 

But nearly all the interpreters speak only French, and 
this for obvious reasons is rather unfortunate. Such 
English as is learned appears mostly to have been acquired 
at the Swedish Mission in Addis Ababa. This Mission 


160 Education, Literature & Art 


school was popular enough amongst the natives, as the 
scholars were fed and lodged, if their parents so desired, 
and people here (as elsewhere) being ever ready to get some- 
thing for nothing, the attendance was comparatively large. 
Unfortunately Mr. Cederquist, the founder of this school— 
created also in the reign of Menelik—a very holy man, ripe 
in years and knowledge, died at a great age in 1919, and the 
school was closed for a time. A successor has since started 
it again. 

It is much to be regretted that King Menelik’s far-sighted 
efforts in this direction should have met with so little 
success, for it augurs ill for the development of the country. 
It is, however, difficult to see how the situation could be 
remedied short of bringing some persuasive or coercive force 
to bear, until the country is opened up, and the natives 
realise that they cannot obtain posts in the offices, houses, 
and factories unless they possess some elementary rudiments 
of knowledge. 

Even so, there are difficulties in the way, as we found. 


My wife thought of starting a small education class in our — 
own grounds for the little girls of our servants and of the — 
natives living near by, having at the time an English girl — 


staying with us who was capable and anxious to undertake 
the teaching. 

The subject was discussed with one or two educated 
Abyssinian men of some position, and though they recog- 
nized and appreciated the soundness of the suggestion, 
they seemed to think that it would be opposed on political 


grounds as being dictated by political motives; and also 


by the parents who from the moment they can toddle 
make use of their children for guarding the goats, sheep, and 


cattle, drawing water, and in fact in any and every manner. 
So we were obliged to abandon the idea, though we were 


told that we might be able to overcome the second 


objection by paying the parents to allow their children to — 


come and be taught! 


Education, Literature & Art 161 


Possibly the multiplicity of languages used in the country 
has deterred people from endeavouring to obtain anything 
more than a speaking acquaintance with any of them. For 
according to Dr. Montandon there are no less than seventy 
languages in use in Abyssinia—two hundred if dialects be 
included. 

The principal language is Amharic, and of the Semitic 
languages of the world, it is, according to Mr. Armbruster, 
spoken by a greater number of people than any other, with 
the exception of Arabic. Its difficulty may be gauged by 
the fact that there are over two hundred letters in the 
alphabet, and consequently the number of guides to the 
language guaranteed to teach it in half a dozen lessons by 
correspondence is limited. 

I am bound to say, however, in mitigation of this appar- 
ently insurmountable barrier to learning Amharic, that 
these characters represent syllables and not letters, and are 
variations of about thirty-seven root characters. For 


_ those who desire to master the language a most valuable 


Amharic grammar and vocabulary has been written by Mr. 


_ Armbruster, who is probably the greatest English authority 


on the subject. 

The next most important language is Galla, a Hamitic 
tongue which is spoken and understood by all the different 
branches of Galla throughout the various districts inhabited 
by them ; in addition Tigré is spoken in Eritrea, and Tig- 
réin in the province of Tigré; both of these are Semitic 


languages as is also the ancient Geze or Geuze tongue, 


~~ Lh fll aii of Se 


Which is to the Abyssinians much as Latin was to the 
English people in the Middle Ages. 

But if their language is difficult their calendar is simpler 
than ours, for instead of having months of differing lengths, 
they divide the year into twelve months of thirty days 


- each and a thirteenth month of five days, called Quagme, 


_ (or Pagme), adding a sixth day to Quagme in leap year. 


Their year starts on the 1st day of Maskaram, which 
L 


162 Education, Literature & Art 


normally corresponds to our 11th September ; it is on and 
from that day up to the end of our year seven years behind 
the European date ; on and after the 1st January, until the 
5th Quagme (our roth September), it is eight years behind. 

But in endeavouring to translate dates from Abyssinian to 
European computation bad snags await the unwary. In the 
first place the introduction of the 6th Quagme in their leap 
year throws all the dates between September and the follow- 
ing February back a day. The Abyssinian year following 
their leap year (which incidentally precedes ours ! ) begins on 
our September 12th instead of September 11th and con- 
tinues a day behind time until our February 29th, when it is 
automatically readjusted. And if the translator wishes to 
compare dates prior to the present century he will find 
further joys in store for him. For the Abyssinians have 
counted as leap years the three years we do not (though 
they are properly leap years), viz: 1700, 1800, and 1900. 
Nor do they take account of the additional day we dropped 


in 1800, nor, I think, of the ten days omitted from our ~ 


calendar in 1582. So they gradually picked up fourteen 
days out of the seven (or eight) years that they were (and are) 
behind. This probably explains why their year starts on 
11th September instead of 29th August, as in the case of 
most Eastern nations. 

The difference in the number of years between their 
computation and ours is possibly due (i) to their adoption 
of the Alexandrian era recognizing 5500 years from the 
creation to the birth of Christ, which was placed three years 
before that given by the Dionysian era (i.e. §502 B.c. 29th 
August) ; and (ii) to their adoption of the Diocletian era, 
which dropped ten years out of the calendar in a.p. 284. 


Thus they lost ten years and gained three or two according _ 


to the date to be computed. 
A similar result would have been attained had they 


adopted in lieu of the above, the calculation made by the 
Egyptian monk Ponodorus who (circa a.p. 400) struck ten 


Education, Literature & Art 163 


years off the age of the world and placed the incarnation 
three years after the then accepted date, thus forming the 
“mundane era of Antioch” which was adopted by the 
Christians of Syria. It is possible that this was the era 
adopted by the Abyssinians ; it is so stated to be in some 
of their old manuscripts. 

The Abyssinian calendar for their current year (leap year 
for them) accordingly compares as follows with ours :— 


ABYSSINIAN. EvROPEAN. 

A.M. } A.D. Month. Days. Months and Days. A.D. 
7415 | 1915 | Maskaram | Ist to 30th | 11 Sept. to 10 Oct. 1922 
x » |. Lekemt s 11 Oct. to 9g Nov. 4 
a Peri. tiidar 6 10 Nov. to 9 Dec. ms 
ie cow it haces % 10 Dec. to 8 Jan. 1923 

a Bie av irr di gJan. to 7 Feb. ‘3 
e ea Yakatit Ns 8 Feb. to 9g Mar. 4 
# 5, | Magabit 7 10 Mar. to 8 April "a 
he 5» | Mazya * g April to 8 May p,. 
MJ », | Gimbot . 9 May to 7 June He 
” » Sane ” 8 June FOV, July ” 
- » | Hamle ‘A 8 July to 6 Aug. He 
. » | Nahasse me 7 Aug. to 5 Sept. > 
a », {| Quagme Ist to 6th 6 Sept. to 12 Sept. su 
7416 | 1916 | Maskaram | Ist to 30th | 12 Sept. to 11 Oct. S 
re » | Lekemt & 12 Oct. to 10 Nov. a 
a aera) kaiCAr .; 11 Nov. to 10 Dec. 4 
Ho ein asas es 11 Dec. to 9g Jan. 1924 
% +) CAPA tae “i 10 Jan. to 8 Feb. 4 
“3 feat Y akatit . 9g Feb. to g Mar. im 


Here the calendar resumes its normal correspondence with 
ours as, owing to the occurrence of our leap year, February 
has an extra day. 

Of modern literature there is nothing, as might be 
imagined in a country where there is no education. A few 
manuscript copies of portions of the Scriptures (mainly the 
Gospels) bound in wooden boards are to be met with, and a 
modern life of Menelik written by an Abyssinian in the form 
of an official “ Chronicle” is I believe in the possession of 
the Empress, and is in course of translation by the late 
French Minister to the Court of Abyssinia. 


164 Education, Literature & Art 


But there is a rich store of legend, tradition, and folk-lore _ 
of ancient date and of great interest, mainly of a religious — 


and quasi-historical character. Such of these old manu- 


f 
) 


scripts as are still in Abyssinia are regarded with great — 


veneration, and are preserved in the seclusion of the great 
monasteries, Debra Libanos for example, and in the 
churches, where unfortunately it is difficult to see them, 
and impossible to acquire them. 

A large number of the more interesting have found their 
way to Europe, the most notable collection probably being 
that of the British Museum, the bulk of which was acquired 
at Magdala by the Napier expedition. An interesting 
account of these MSS. is given by Dr. Wright in the preface 
to his catalogue of the books. Apparently King Theodore 
had collected nearly 1000 volumes to form a library for the 
church he intended to build at Magdala, and these fell into 
English hands on the capture of the fortress ; between 300 
and 400 of the best were brought to England, the balance 


. 


\ 


being distributed to the neighbouring churches. Amongst — 


those brought home were two copies of the Kebra Nagast 
or “ Glory of the Kings,” and some years later Theodore’s 
successor, King Johannes, wrote to Queen Victoria asking for 
the return of a copy as it was regarded as sacred by his people 
and contained the laws and precepts necessary to enable him 
to govern the country. On the only occasion probably in its 
history, the British Museum accordingly returned the 
manuscript, and it is now at the Monastery of Debra 
Libanos where it was seen by a European traveller who 
noticed the inscription attached to it stating the condi- 
tions under which the Trustees of the Museum had parted 
with it. 

This particular manuscript has been translated into 
English and published by that indefatigable Orientalist, Sir 
Ernest Wallis Budge, who almost alone amongst English 
scholars since the time of Bruce has endeavoured to make 
these fascinating old Ethiopian records known to the public 


Education, Literature & Art 165 


in this country. I am glad to say that another portion of the 
old chronicles of Abyssinia has recently been translated by 
Mr. Weld Blundell, but unfortunately with very few excep- 
tions we have left the publication and translation of these 
delightful old works to the writers of other countries. 

They contain not only fabulous tales of saintly miracles 
and other wonderful happenings, but the chronicles of the 
reigns of centuries of Ethiopian kings, from before the 

Queen of Sheba up to comparatively recent times. I do not 

think that these chronicles, which are regarded in the 
country as history, but which are more interesting from 
other points of view, have ever been completely translated 
as a whole, but there are many partial translations of these 
and other old Abyssinian works by French, Italian, Portu- 
guese, and German writers, such as Perruchon, Basset, 
Conzelman, Guidi, Conti-Rossini, and Dillman, to name 
only a few. 

It is more than unfortunate that the Moslem and Galla 
invasions of the sixteenth century by their ruthless pillage 
and arson of so many churches and monasteries, should have 
destroyed thousands of old manuscripts of priceless historical 
interest which were distributed in many centres; there 
is supposed to have been a “ golden age” of Abyssinian 
literature in the sixth and another in the twelfth century, 
but of course the Moslem iconoclasts must have destroyed 
the bulk of the material then existing in the country. 

As to their arts, while I would not be so rude as to suggest 
that their painting is crude, yet I fear they have some way 
to go before qualifying as Royal Academicians; I am no 
judge of art, and I feel some diffidence in expressing opinions 
on that subject. Pictures are scarce, and of the most primi- 
tive character, usually carried out in oils on coarse paper or 
on a piece of cotton material roughly stretched on a wooden 
frame ; nearly all the churches contain large frescoes. The 
colouring seems to the uninitiated rather vivid and startling 
—Byzantine or, dare I say, post-impressionist in style. The 


166 Education, Literature & Art 


subjects are mainly religious, with a military flavour 
occasionally, and a sprinkling of historical and hunting 
topics. Virtuous people are generally depicted full face, 
evil-doers or enemies en profile, which at all events makes 
their pictures more easily understandable by the vulgar 
than some modern European efforts I have seen since my 
return. But there does not seem to be any very great 
demand for artistic works, and I fear that painting as a 
means of livelihood would be unlikely to yield an enormous 
income in Abyssinia. 

The Abyssinians on the whole are very fond of their own 
kind of music and singing, which is not ours. It is a very 
common sight to meet in the town a group of natives 
standing round one of their brothers squatting on the 
ground playing a sort of lyre, sometimes accompanied by 
singing, and one constantly hears the natives chanting in 
their huts and at their work. 

There seem to be about three or four kinds of Abyssinian 
musical instruments. ‘T'wo or three differ from each other 
only slightly in form and in the sounds they produce. ‘They 
are shaped something like a fiddle ; the body is constructed 
of a hollowed piece of wood over Pichi is stretched a piece 
of sheep-skin ; three sticks put together in a triangular shape 
form the handle, and to this are attached strings, from two 
to four in number, of cat or sheepgut. These are passed over 
a small wooden bridge resting on the skin and fastened to 
the edge of the wooden bowl; the bow with which it is 
played is formed from a piece of bent cane also with cat or 
sheep’s gut attached. The other instrument most commonly 
met with is shaped like a lyre, and is also made of sticks and 
gut, and perhaps is the most generally used. Besides these 
one finds a flute of a very primitive nature from which it is 
difficult for the uninitiated to obtain any sound at all, and 
which at the best is somewhat discordant. 

Drums of many kinds and shapes are popular, and the 
musicians of the Court possess horns and trumpets on which 


Education, Literature & Art 167 


they perform on special occasions with a certain amount of 
success and a great amount of noise. Some of these drums 
are very gorgeous, being made of silver with gold or gilt 
bands; usually they are made of wood and highly orna- 
mented. They are always beaten with the flat of the hand, 
and not with sticks. 

On the whole I should say that music is certainly popular ; 
I should describe it as either very ancient or ultra-modern— 
Lam not quite sure which. But it will, Limagine, undoubt- 
edly tend in a modern direction, for while I was there a 
dramatic society was founded in Addis by the * Young 
Abyssinians,” and presumably they will march—or rather 
play—with the times. Just before our departure in 1920 
we were able to assist at their first public performance which 
took place in the large hall at the Hotel de France, the enter- 
tainment consisting of a series of weird “turns” on music- 
hall lines. 

First of all the curtain went up and we found five 
Abyssinians all playing on their fiddles and shrieking songs in 
turns; then we were given a song by a lady accompanied by 
two gentlemen with stringed instruments and others with 
flutes. These were followed by comic turns, received with 
roars of enjoyment from those amongst the audience who 
understood them; after which various songs and dances 
were given, the most weird of the latter being the ‘‘ shoul- 
der” dance executed by a plump lady who evidently found 
it very exhausting, as she literally panted for breath before 
finishing. How long this performance lasted I am unable to 
say, as after about three-quarters of an hour of its enjoy- 
ment we found the heat and smell quite impossible to 
support and so came away. 

Before leaving, we made arrangements for some of the best 
of the performers to come and give a short entertainment at 
our house on the evening of our farewell dinner ; this was 
a great success and of much interest not only to our guests, 
but also to their servants and ours who formed a delightful 


168 Education, Literature & Art 


and most picturesque background in their variegated foreign 
uniforms and native dresses. 

Wedding ceremonies are accompanied by music, singing, 
and dancing, the former takes in principle the form of much 
banging on drums and what to us sounds like indiscriminate 
twanging of the native lyre and fiddle. Little or no melody 
is recognized by us in the native lay music; per contra the 
religious music given at Church services is distinctive in 
melody, if it can be so called, of a Gregorian kind, and the 
rhythm is quite good too—accentuated by drums, by the 
clapping of hands and the shaking of small wooden-handled 
triangular brass instruments to which are attached on wires 
tiny cymbals emitting a bell-like sound. Personally I was 
much impressed by this accompaniment to the Church 
service. 

These little brass instruments to which I have also referred 
in previous chapters might really be described as szstra; 
they are exactly like the one which was discovered in ‘Tut- 
ankhamen’s tomb and of which an illustration was recently 
published, thus emphasizing once again the connection 
between Abyssinia and ancient Egypt. 

Dancing of various sorts and kinds is of course indulged 
in, but not as commonly as in many parts of Africa. It is 
in its more decorous form an accompaniment of religious 
pageantry as described elsewhere, and at the other end of the 
scale | saw a curious performance by some of our men and 
some Galla when we were in camp in the Arussi country. 

The local people had promised to bring in milk, butter, 
and eggs in the evening from their village some distance away, 
and at about 9 o’clock we heard chanting in the distance, to 
the accompaniment of which there presently stalked into 
the camp three or four sturdy Galla bearing the promised 
foodstuffs. Our men being, I supposed, rather pleased at 
this addition to the larder fraternized with the new arrivals ; 
their greetings developed into a performance which in the 
flickering light of the camp fires and the pale glow of the 


\ 


Education, Literature & Art 169 


moon seemed weirdly fantastic. Doubling themselves 
down and putting their hands on their hips, two of the men 
hopped towards each other, hissing like a couple of engines 
to the accompaniment of a solo chant from one of the 
onlookers alternating with a chorus by all the rest together, 
and the rhythmical beating of their hands and stamping of 
their feet and spear butts ; they met near the fire, hopped 
round each other in time to the “‘ music” and then fled 
back to the corners, repeating the movements with varia- 
- tions again and again until we had to clear camp for the 
night. 

On another occasion a warrior gave us a most realistic 
dance typifying a fight with the lion, again by the light of 
the camp fire. His frantic leaps and bounds, his shouts as 
now he attacked the imaginary lion and now fled from its 
advance, the yell of victory with which he dropped his 
sword and panting with his exertions, pulled out a villainous 
looking knife to give the coup de grace to the mortally 
wounded beast—almost made one feel that the fight was a 
real one, and that the lion must be really lurking in the 
shadows thrown by the flickering flames. 


CHAPTER XV 
The Army 


HE Abyssinian army is in effect practically the 

Abyssinian people, for with the exception of the 

priests and monks every man is an actual or 

potential soldier. The love of fighting is in his 
blood, the story of his country is an almost unintermittent 
battle, his ambition from earliest childhood is to carry a 
rifle, and when he attains to manhood he nearly always 
achieves that desire, for it is rare to see an Abyssinian 
unarmed or unattended by armed followers. 

And if he is proud of his warlike record he has some reason 
to be. For whenever Abyssinia has fought against for- 
eigners as a nation she has been ultimately victorious, in spite 
of periods of unsuccess and the adverse results of individual 
actions. ‘The Napier expedition of 1868 was not resisted 
by united Abyssinia but by a handful of Theodore’s remain- 
ing adherents, the bulk of his subjects being in rebellion 
against him; the Dervish victory at Gondar in 1887 was 
won over the forces of Gojam alone; and in the successes 
of January, 1865, the Italians were opposed merely by Ras 
Mangesha and his own men. 

But when the forces of Abyssinia united they gained 
remarkable victories, often followed by no less remarkable 
consequences, even in modern times, such for example as 
those in 1875 and 1876 over the Egyptians, armed with 
modern weapons and led by Europeans ; those in 1885, 1888, 
and 1889 over the Dervishes, in the first of which Osman 
Digna was defeated and nearly captured; and over the 
Italians in 1895 and 1896. 


170 


The Army 171 


The reason is fairly obvious ; a national emergency, and 
only a national emergency, brings the whole military organi- 
zation of the country into play ; and the result is a large and 
formidable army of warriors which against anything like 
equal numbers and armament is undoubtedly a serious 
proposition. 

In the old days these forces were called together with 
very great rapidity ; heralds, riding post, galloped through 
the country from village to village, and to the accompaniment 
of blowing of trumpets and beating of drums the procla- 
mation calling the people to arms was read in the market- 
place. The men responded gladly to the call, for they love 
fighting, and the possibilities of plunder are not unattractive. 
So with some scanty supplies of bread and grain for man and 
beast tied to the pony’s saddle the peasant was ready for 
war, and rode off forthwith to join his immediate feudal 
chief, whose retinue, with those of many others, was to 
foregather at an agreed spot to swell the ranks of the 
provincial governor’s army. 

To-day the modus operandi of mobilization, which like 
most other things in Abyssinia is based on feudality, would 
doubtless be the same, though it would be considerably 
expedited—strange contrast—by the help of the telephone 
which now stretches its tentacles far afield across the country. 

There is of course a nucleus standing army always in 
being ; it is partly attached to the persons of the rulers of 
the country, partly to the Commander-in-Chief or Minister 
of War, and partly in garrison in the provinces. Fach 
provincial governor has a quota of men, and any person of 
importance has his little feudal army, greater or less, accord- 
ing to his standing and resources. But these forces give 
little indication of the military strength that can be called 
upon in times of national emergency. 

The number of men that could be brought into the field 
is necessarily conjectural, for the population itself is an 
unknown quantity, and the past, even the recent past, is 


172 The Army 


hardly a safe guide. Much would depend on the nature of 
the summons; a national call to arms to repel a foreign 
invasion would undoubtedly result in every Ras and local 
chief, great and small, bringing into the field every man 
that could carry a weapon, rifle or otherwise, although for 
reasons explained later various other factors would auto- 
matically limit the size of any striking force. ; 

Cecci estimated in 1887 that the maximum strength 
Abyssinia could possibly put into the field on an emergency 
might consist of 145,000 men of which §7,000 would be 
cavalry, and 71,000 rifles, 28,000 only being breech- 
loaders. Nine years later these figures were (with the 
exception of the cavalry) found to be considerably under 
the mark, for in the 1896 campaign Menelik had probably 
gathered over 200,000 men of whom at least 100,000 to 
120,000 took part in the battle of Adowa, 8600 horse, 
80,000 rifles, of which nearly all were breech-loaders, 20,000 
spears, and 42 guns, many quite modern. 

In the following year Menelik had no less than four 
columns operating in different parts of the country, the 
combined strength of which amounted to between 70,000 
and 80,000 men. Forces co-operated with the British 
troops in several campaigns against the Mad Mullah in 
Somaliland in 1901-3, but the highest number engaged did 
not exceed 20,000 men. And on the last occasion on which 
any considerable forces were brought together, i.e. in the 
summer of 1921, Ras ‘T'afari marched north to effect the 
capture of the Ex-emperor Lej Yasu (a feat accomplished 
without fighting) at the head of fully 50,000 men, and was 
joined en route by the forces of Gojam and other contin- 
gents which nearly doubled his original strength. 

That the numbers of men brought into action are not 
larger may seem surprising, but when the conditions under 
which an Abyssinian army moves are taken into considera- 
tion, one’s surprise is considerably lessened. It has been 
estimated by a military writer that an army of 80,000 


The Army Lz 


Abyssinians would be accompanied by about 30,000 women, 
slaves, and camp followers, and the feeding of this enormous 
multitude necessarily presents many great difficulties, 
especially as there are no commissariat arrangements of any 
sort or kind— the “‘ Army Service Corps” simply does not 
exist. Every man is supposed to bring with him a month’s 
supply of food, but even if he does (which is improbable), 
such a supply does not go far in a campaign of any length in 
a country where it may take a month to get from the centre 
to any one of the frontiers. As a result the army has to live 
on the country, which is not over-cultivated at any time, 
and in which any one district is consequently quite unable to 
support a host of immigrants for anything beyond a very 
short while. This was markedly apparent during Menelik’s 
Italian compaign ; before Adowa his army was suffering 
severely from lack of food, grumblings and desertions set in, 
and disintegration was commencing: they had started 
eating their pack animals, and Menelik spent most of his 
time in church praying that the Italians would attack ; 
had they not done so it is possible that their enemy’s army 
would have largely disappeared, and they might have won 
a bloodless victory. 

I happened to come across an example in a small way of 
this lack of commissariat arrangements in the army when we 
were down in the Arussi country. There had been some 
trouble threatened between the Arussi and the Gourages, 
and a white settler being a little anxious as to his crops and 
cattle had reported the matter to Addis. The Ras had sent 
off some officers with a few hundred men to look into the 
question, and this force had arrived without provisions of 
any sort or kind, and were literally hungry when I met them, 
and anxious to get back to Addis, though they had only been 
out for about a fortnight. 

Consequently whatever might be the result of a national 
levy en masse it is improbable that any army exceeding 


appreciably that gathered together by Menelik would be 


174 The Army 


formed, or if formed, could be kept together as a unit, and 
in setting 250,000 as the probable maximum limit of an 
effective Abyssinian force I do not think I am understating 
the case, as conditions are at present. 

There is a further limiting factor which would operate 
to-day, and that is the supply of arms and amunition. Every 
man on mobilisation is served out with those necessaries if his 
own supplies are inferior or inadequate, from the stock held 
by the Government, and they are reported to have in 
store very large quantities of both rifles and cartridges. 
But these must by now be getting somewhat out of date. 
The national cartridge factory ceased operating during the 
Great War on account of dearth of raw material, and subse- 
quent drastic restrictions as to the importation of these 
commodities has prevented replacement or increase of 
supplies. While therefore it might be possible to arm 
large numbers of men, it would be improbable that this 
armament could be made effective owing to shortage of 
ammunition. ‘This must still further reduce the actual 
fighting strength of Abyssinia. 

The bulk of the Abyssinians, properly so called, fight on 
foot, the cavalry being principally drawn from the Galla 
contingents; the Gallas are good horsemen, which is the 
more strange as they only acquired their horses after their 
arrival in the sixteenth century. 

They have a few machine guns, no other modern guns, 
and no heavy guns at all. ‘They have no aeroplanes ; these 
‘innovations ” are not allowed to enter the country, 
mainly I believe on the initiative of the Minister of War, 
who regards them as childish toys, or as affront to the 
Almighty by endeavouring to extend the powers of man 
beyond those granted him by Providence, or as a devilish 
device of the Frangi to spy out the land from above, and so 
facilitate ultimate foreign conquest. While I was in Addis 
an effort was made by an enterprising Frenchman to bring 
two aeroplanes into the country; by some mistake of the 


The Army es 


Customs (who couldn’t classify them for duty under any 
existing tariff heading) they got up in a truck as far as Addis, 
but there they remained. ‘They were never allowed to be 
unpacked, and for weeks they lay rotting in open trucks 
under the tropical sun, until at last the diabolical instru- 
ments were returned ingloriously to the coast. 

The size of the army may appear small to us after our 
experience of the enormous numbers engaged in the Great 
War, but with the lesson of the Boer War in mind I am 
quite prepared to believe that the Abyssinians would be 
formidable to meet, even to-day, in their own country, when 
one takes into account the extraordinarily difficult nature of 
the ground, the wonderful mobility of these barefooted 
warriors, their intimate knowledge of their own mountains, 
their shooting powers, and their skill in taking cover when 
attacking. ‘Those who have seen them in action speak 
highly of their fighting capacity, of which indeed they have 
given proof on many a field against adversaries as well or 
better armed than themselves, and in comparatively recent 
times. Whether these qualities could compete with modern 
artillery and aeroplanes is quite another matter ; let us hope 
that the occasion will not arise to put it to the proof. 

As regards discipline, drill, and uniform, they do not 
appear to have made the slightest progress towards modern 
ideas if we except Ras Tafari’s personal bodyguard. ‘The 
bulk of this small contingent is generally stationed in Harrar, 
the Ras’ own province, and only occasionally makes its 
appearance in force in Addis, though some of them are always 
on duty there. They wear a khaki uniform of European 
pattern, tunic and knickerbockers, putties, but no boots, 
and are well armed with modern rifles and machine guns ; 
they are drilled by ex-N.C.O’s of the King’s African Rifles, 
Abyssinians who have served their time in that famous corps 
and have retired to continue their soldiering in their own 
country. Their discipline seems good, and their appearance 
is certainly smart ; it was a pleasant surprise on arriving at 


176 The Army 


the Ras’ palace to hear the old familiar words of command 


given in English and to receive an English salute.. 


Apart from this small corps no uniform is worn by the © 


soldiery; they are dressed like the rest of the population— 
white cotton shirt, trousers, and chamma, though the last- 


named garment is sometimes ornamented with a red border ; _ 


some carry their rifles in red cotton bags to indicate, I believe, 
that they belong to the Imperial bodyguard. 

They do not seem to suffer from any form of drill or 
discipline, and troops on the march seem to be merely trot- 
ting along together in a crowd without order or organization 
of any kind. And yet in fact this is not so at all, for when a 
halt is called the camp is marked out and arranged in an 
incredibly short space of time, each contingent seems to 
know its allotted place, and the apparent disorder of the 


march is shown to have been disorder merely according to 


our ideas. 

I have often noticed the same sort of thing at peaceful 
ceremonies in which Abyssinian troops have taken part—the 
apparent chaos covering in reality quite good organization 
on their own lines. At a fantasia at which I was present in 


Addis, for example, thousands of men belonging to the © 


forces of many different chieftains were drawn up at one end © 


of a huge field, armed indiscriminately with rifles, swords, 


spears and shields, some mounted, some on foot, all appar-_ 


ently mixed up in a hopelessly confused orderless rabble. 
And then from the densely thronged thousands at the end of 
the field at a given signal every chief, with all his retinue, 
in turn galloped and raced to a post in the middle of the 
field and rode round it three times as hard as they could 
manage it to a rhythmic chant, finally pulling out of the 


whirling mass and taking up position on the other side of the ~ 


field. It was wonderful, horses and mules and men, gold 
and silver trappings, modern rifles, embroidered cartridge 
belts, embossed shields, long, murderous-looking spears, 


great curved swords in velvet scabbards—thousands of — 


A GRUESOME MEAL. 


The Arussi shewn here was discovered by the author tearing with teeth and 
fingers at the heap before him consisting of the raw entrails and bowel of 
a freshly killed ox. 


AN ABYSSINIAN WARRIOR IN FANTASIA DRESS. 


The rider is wearing the historical lion’s mane collar ; the ornamentation of the shield 


and the trappings of the horse are of silver and silver-gilt. 


The Army 177 


them, apparently in hopeless confusion, but all really 
ordered, organized, and planned out exceedingly well. 

Their tactics appear to be simple. Up to 1885 they used 
the phalanx formation, but after that when they had 
acquired modern fire-arms in large quantities they adopted 
the attack in open order, pouring in a heavy fire for some 
time, and gradually approaching their enemy (encircling him 
if possible), taking advantage of the cover afforded by every 
rock and tree. ‘They carried this out with much success at 
Adowa where that very remarkable general, Ras Alula, the 
greatest soldier ever produced by them since Theodore, was 
quick to perceive the error of the Italians in separating their 
forces, and attacked and annihilated each of the three 
columns in turn, though losing fairly heavily, on this occa- 
sion the casualties being about 7000 killed and 10,000 
wounded, a number larger than the total number of 
enemy engaged. 

Against a fortified position defended by guns and rifle fire 
they would, however, probably not make much of a show; 
indeed when King John was blockading the Italians in 
Massowa after the fight at Dogali in 1887, he did not venture 
an attack, the unsuccessful effort of his forces under Ras 
Alula against Sahati having evidently taught him a lesson. 

It is, however, less pleasant to speak of their treatment of 
dead and wounded and prisoners. The Italian losses at 
Adowa amounted to over 6000 killed, only 1400 wounded, 
and from 2000 to 4000 prisoners, which indicates pretty 
clearly that numbers of wounded must have been massacred 
or left to die. But the most horrible feature was the mutila- 
tion of the dead in order to obtain the disgusting trophies 
in which the Abyssinians, and more particularly the Gallas, 
used to revel. It is only fair to say that Menelik did his best 
to stop the practice, and it would not be indulged in to-day ; 
but at Adowa and in other campaigns, for example against 
the Wallamo, there is no doubt but that the dead were 


treated in this way. The Abyssinian explanation of the 
M 


178 The Army 


origin of the practice is curious ; they point out that David, 
the man after God’s own heart, the father of Solomon and 
the ancestor of their own royal family, indulged in the 
practice in order to stand well in the eyes of Saul, bringing 
him on one occasion two hundred such trophies, and that 
there is no word of condemnation of his having done so, 
rather the reverse in fact! A good example of too literal an 
adherence to the Scriptures, 

The pay of the army could hardly be described as princely, 
the rank and file receiving until recently about $8 a year 
(less than (1) and food, and the officers not very much more, 
These stipends have recently been somewhat increased, but 
even now they are quite inadequate for the needs of the 
men, who, being ignorant of Talleyrand’s dictum on the 
subject, consider it necessary to live; it is consequently 
hardly surprising that they are apt to help themselves by 
preying on their neighbours, especially when on garrison 
duty in conquered provinces or onthe march. In the capital 
a good many of the soldiery go in for supplementing their 
scanty pay by acting as magadis or small traders, which is 
certainly preferable. 

But the bulk of them lead an idle and useless life, to put 
it mildly, and Mr. Wilde writing some twenty years ago 
goes a good deal further than this, and in contrasting the 
soldier with the peasant allows the former no virtues beyond 
giving him full credit for his fighting qualities. | 

There is of course a regular hierarchy in the army from 
the Ras or Commander-in-Chief downwards ; thus a Dejaz- 
mach appears to correspond with our General, the Fitoraurt 
is the commander of the advance guard, a most important 
individual ; Asmatch, Kegnezmach, and Gerazmach, com- 
manders of a division, and of the right and left wings 
respectively ; Yeshambal and Mato appear to correspond 
roughly to a company commander. 

But many of these grades are conferred on individuals 
more as titles than as marks of military rank, and conse- 


The Army 179 


quently no direct comparison or even translation is possible. 
No doubt as in most other countries all ranks and titles were 
originally given for combatant purposes, and with the efflux 
of time they have gradually lost their purely military 
character. 

There is, however, one office which although by no means 
unique in history is sufficiently curious a survival to merit 
reference, and that is the Likemaquas. I did not come 
across the bearer of the title (I believe there are two of 
them), but apparently his function is to array himself in the 
robes of the Emperor during an action so as to attract the 
attentions of the enemy and thus divert them from his royal 
master. I should imagine that this glorified “ whipping 
boy ” would require a fairly high salary. 

The most striking figure in connection with the army is 
the Commander-in-Chief or Minister of War, the Fitorauri 
Hapta Giorgis. This remarkable old man is one of the most 
important personages in Abyssinia to-day, and plays a 
prominent part in the internal politics of the country. A 
Galla by birth, he is precluded from holding a rank higher 
than that of Fitorauri—he is I believe Fitorauri of the 
Fitorauris—and has been a devotee of the “ profession of 
arms ”’ all his life. He was one of Menelik’s generals, and 
inter alia commanded one of the four expeditions sent out 
by that Emperor in connection with Major Marchand’s 
mission in the autumn of 1897, in the course of which he 
conquered various districts in the direction of Borana and 
the Ogaden. 

He was also in command of Ras Tafari’s forces at the 
battle near Ankober in 1916, when they defeated the Galla 
troops under Ras Michael, the father of Lej Yasu, who 
remained in a convenient place for running away while his 
father did the fighting and was captured. 

The Fitorauri is a typical “ old Abyssinian,” intensely 
proud of his country and its deeds, a staunch upholder of 
the old regime and detesting the foreigner and his ideas of 


180 The Army 


change and progress, though I am bound to say he was 
always very pleasant and courteous to us, and even wanted 
to let us his own house. He lives in an Abyssinian-built 
tukul, in what seemed to me a very comfortless manner, and 
boasts of never having ever seen the railway, far less used 
it; though almost crippled by rheumatism in the legs he 
performs the long journey to his own territory (he is a great 
landowner and a very wealthy man) on the back of his mule 
as his fathers did. 

He is, needless to say, on the side of the reactionary party 
and the priesthood, and is probably one of the greatest 
stumbling-blocks, if not the greatest, to Ras ‘Tafari’s schemes 
of reform. For he carries a good deal of weight in the 
country, not merely on account of his fighting record, 
sturdy patriotism and influence with the army, but strange 
to say also because he is universally recognized as being 
incorruptible, and of never having taken a bribe of any sort 
or kind from any hand. 


CHAPTER. XVI 
Slavery & Serfdom 


T comes as a surprise to persons travelling in Abyssinia 

when they discover the extent to which various forms 

of serfdom and domestic slavery exist in that country 

to-day, although the casual observer sees little or 
nothing of it. We have grown so accustomed to regard 
slavery as a thing of the dim and distant past that it is hardly 
realized what a short period has elapsed since it flourished in 
our midst, and how strenuously many persons in Europe 
fought against the abolition of that practice. Our views on 
the subject have become so crystallized that the question is 
not one which admits of discussion to-day, and accordingly 
it is hardly to be wondered at that considerable feeling 
should have been aroused by the recent publication of 
certain highly coloured, not to say exaggerated, accounts, 
not only of the existence of slavery in Abyssinia, but of 
what was described as a recrudescence of slave-raiding and 
slave-trading in that country. 

The subject is one which I have discussed with many 
persons in Abyssinia, and about which | have been at pains 
to obtain the real facts ; and [ trust that the account given 
in the following pages will present as accurate a picture as 
it is possible to obtain. 

In the first place it must be constantly be borne in mind 
that, as I have repeatedly stated, in regard to social develop- 
ment Abyssinia is by reason of its centuries of isolation very 
considerably behind the stage we had reached when we were 


slave-dealers and slave-owners. It is consequently hardly 
181 


182 Slavery & Serfdom 


surprising that their point of view on this question should 
not have attained to ours, and that they are unable to realize 
the impression made on Europe by their maintenance of 
conditions on which much of their social system, such as 
it is, has been for centuries and is still based. 

This attitude towards slavery was recently expressed to 
me somewhat as follows. I have tried to keep as closely to 
_the original phraseology as possible. 

“We do not regard any individuals or race as intended 
by Providence to be slaves. We have slaves it is true, but 
that is because we have until recently for many years past 
waged war against Moslems and pagans, and the prisoners 
we have taken and enslaved in the past we regard as a fine 
or indemnity imposed on the races we have conquered. 
Moses instructed the Israelites to act in this way, and we 
were followers of the Mosaic religion before we became 
Christians ; we only followed his teaching. 

‘“‘ Moreover the Europeans in the Great War did the same 
thing ; they made the prisoners they captured in battle 
work on roads and railways; this was as a sort of fine or 
indemnity, and not because they regarded their enemies 
as intended by nature to be slaves. 

“‘ We are not allowed by our lawto buy or sell slaves ; to do 
so is for an Abyssinian punishable by death. Unfortunately 
having been surrounded by pagans for so long, and having 
had much of our territory overrun by Moslems, some of 
their pernicious habits have crept into the country and 
have led people astray.” 

This form of reasoning is for us perhaps difficult to 
understand, but it is quite clear to them, and it is quite 
consistent on the one hand with the maintenance of a form 
of domestic slavery of prisoners taken in war, and on the 
other with the edicts issued and the agreements entered 
into with foreign powers regarding the suppression of slave 
dealing by the Emperors Theodore, John, and Menelik, and 
by the present rulers. 


Slavery & Serfdom 183 


In fact by the Treaty of 1884 (which is still in force) 
made between Abyssinia and this country King John under- 
took to prohibit and prevent to the best of his ability the 
buying and selling of slaves within, and the import and 
export of slaves into and from Abyssinia—and_ further 
undertook to protect liberated slaves. According to Mr. 
Wylde, who knew the country well at this time, the King 
faithfully and effectively carried out this ‘Treaty until his 
death. But of course he did not abolish domestic slavery. 

The present position is that various forms of serfdom 
and of domestic slavery on a large scale undoubtedly 
exist in most of the country, and that the majority of 
Abyssinians utilize the services of serfs or slaves for house- 
hold purposes to a greater or less extent according to their 
position and means. Those slaves, who may have been, 
captured in war or born of slave parents, are on the whole 
well treated ; they are regarded as members of the family ; 
in the smaller households they live, eat, and sleep in the 
same house, and often in the same room (the terms are 
generally synonymous !) as their masters, and frequently 
rise to positions of trust and confidence in the service of the 
more important Abyssinians. It cannot be described as an 
oppressive form of slavery, and is part and parcel of the 
social arrangements of the country. 

The servants of Europeans generally have one or more 
of these “ domestic helps ”’ ; even the servants of the Foreign 
Legations had a kind of serf or slave in their tukuls to assist 
their wives to run their households, and it was only last 
year that the practice was abolished so far as the French 
and British Legations were concerned; I believe the 
bewilderment of the slaves, who could not understand what 
all the fuss was about, was quite amusing. I cannot refrain 
from quoting in this connection an instructive incident 
which was related in the House of Commons by the Foreign 
Office representative when referring to this twentieth- 
century emancipation. 


184 Slavery & Serfdom 


All the servants of the British Legation had been told 
that whether living in the Legation compound or outside 
they must as a condition of retaining their posts set free any 
slaves they might possess. Of course they were recompensed 
in cash, because if they had merely been told to get rid of 
them they would have passed them on to someone else, and 
no practical result would have been attained. One employé 
of the Legation, a Moslem, protested that he had no slaves, 
and when he was confronted with evidence which made it 
quite clear that his statement was, to put it mildly, some- 
thing less than accurate, he explained that the slaves 
belonged to his wives. He seems to have borrowed this 
ingenious device from Europe, where it is not unknown for 
people to say that property desired by their creditors is not 
their own but that of their wives. 

The plea was not, however, considered adequate in this 
case, and he was told that as long as these slaves were held as 
slaves in his family he could not be employed in the British 
Legation. But he was a man of resource and, on the spot, 
before leaving the room, he issued a decree of divorce against 
the two ladies and told them they were no longer his wives. 
The British representative feeling a little embarrassed at 
having been the means of bringing about this domestic 
crisis, said something by way of deprecation of such very 
hurried divorce proceedings, but the gentleman was not at 
all put out. He said that the ladies could be very easily 
replaced, and that there was no need to feel disturbed about 
the matter; and the final result appears to have been the 
departure of the two ladies with their slaves, and the reten- 
tion of the gentleman, minus family and slaves, in the 
employment of the British Legation. 

But whatever may be said as to the comparative mildness 
of the form of domestic slavery prevalent in Abyssinia, 
there is nothing whatever to be said in mitigation of slave- 
raiding or slave-trading wherever it exists and whatever 
form it takes. And unfortunately there is no doubt but 


Slavery & Serfdom 185 


that this practice did exist on a large scale at one time in 
Abyssinia, and does exist on a small and diminishing scale 
to-day on certain of the frontiers remote from headquarters’ 
control. During the reign of Menelik whole districts were 
conquered, and many of their inhabitants removed ; during 
the chaos which obtained on his illness in 1908, in the 
succeeding years while he was hors de combat and during 
the reign of his successor, some of these districts were prac- 
tically depopulated and thrown out of cultivation. 

It is ridiculous to suppose, as I have seen suggested lately, 
that because he issued an edict against slave-trading Menelik 
“abolished slavery,” and that it is only recently that this 
iniquitious traffic has sprung into being again. So far from 
having done away with the acquisition of slaves Menelik 
was probably responsible for the enslaving of larger numbers 
of persons than almost any other Abyssinian ruler of modern 
times, not of course by trading or purchase but owing to 
his enormous conquests. A Frenchman who accompanied 
him on one of his expeditions relates how the women and 
children of the conquered population were divided up 
amongst the victorious army, Menelik’s own personal share 
being 1800 slaves and 18,000 head of cattle. The same 
writer also describes how slaves were freely bought under this 
monarch’s reign, a state of affairs which I venture to say 
obtains practically nowhere in Abyssinia to-day—such acts 
of slave traffic as are carried on having to be done secretly 
and by night. 

With the gradual restoration of order which has been 
slowly making itself felt since the advent to power of the 
present rulers in 1916, an improvement in this, as in other 
matters, has been made evident owing to the cessation of 
conquest, the delimitation of frontiers, the establishment of 
frontier posts, and for other reasons. So far from there 
having been a “ recrudescence ” of the slave trade as has 
been alleged, official reports and statements made in Parlia- 
ment evidence a decline for some years past, and it has 


186 Slavery & Serfdom 


been officially stated that only a single vessel carrying 
slaves from Abyssinia has been detected during recent 
times. 

In connection with this particular case a white paper was 
published recently, and it contains inter alia a very signifi- 
cant letter addressed by Ras Tafari to the British Chargé 
d’Affaires at Addis Ababa. In the course of this letter Ras 
Tafari states that his Government will help the twenty-six 
slaves found in the dhow to go anywhere they like and to live 
in liberty there, and will give them certificates of liberty. 
He goes on to say: 

‘“‘ As we were very desirous of finding out, to catch and 
punish these slave-raiders, we have to inform you to send 
us the copy containing the conversation of these liberated 
slaves, if they have been examined, whether they knew the 
persons and places wherefrom they have been raided.” 

I think this letter is very interesting as indicating the 
Regent’s attitude towards this question, and it appears no 
less significant that in his letter to the Regent the British 
Chargé d’Affaires asks him to assist him “to obtain the 
manumission of the slaves according to local custom, and to 
repatriate them to their countries.” 

There have of course been local raiding incidents and, as 
T have already said, the distant border countries are difficult 
to control. ‘They are generally low-lying, hot, and un- 
healthy, consequently police-work there is not popular 
amongst the Abyssinian soldiery; communications are 
lacking, and the passage of troops during the rainy season 
is hampered by the swollen condition of the rivers, the 
absence of bridges, and the water-logged state of the soil. 

These districts are the resort of fugitive criminals of all 
kinds who, fleeing from the central provinces to escape 
justice, become outlaws or shiftas as they are termed locally, 
live by robbery and pillage, and occasionally organize raids 
into the neighbouring British or other territories for the 
purpose of obtaining cattle, ivory, and slaves. 


Slavery & Serfdom 187 


Unfortunately some of the distant governors have not 
been as unsympathetic as they might be to these operations 
and have not supported the central government to the full 
extent of their powers, or carried out fully the orders they 
received. This has naturally increased the difficulties with 
which the Government have had to cope. 

The Regent, however, is fully alive to the pernicious 
nature of this traffic, and is earnest in his desire to suppress 
it; had he been adequately supported still more drastic 
steps in that direction would have been taken before now. 
As it is, he has evolved preliminary proposals for dealing 
with the evil, an outline of which was published some 
months ago ; it is briefly somewhat as follows :— 


It is proposed to select from the Shankala and other 
tribes living on the borders where the troubles occur young 
men, slaves, under twenty, and to bring them in considerable 
numbers to Addis Ababa. ‘There they will be placed in a 
military police training school to be established by the 
Government, and will be trained in police duties, etc., 
by instructors specially engaged by the Ras for the 
purpose. 

These men will be formally freed, and given a certificate 
of liberty so as to establish their position. ‘They will, after 
completing their training at the school of instruction, 
remain in Addis Ababa for a period of one, two, or three 
years, to obtain practical experience of police duties, and 
acquire habits of discipline under control and supervision. 

Then, on proving themselves satisfactory and suitable, 
they will be returned in armed bodies to their own 
districts, which they know and where they are fever-proof, 
to act as border police and to hunt down the gangs of 
shiftas that now infest these parts and bring discredit on 
the Government. 


Among the advantages which are claimed for this proposal 
are the following :— 


188 Slavery & Serfdom 


Firstly. A number of men now in the status of slaves 
will become free men, will be educated and trained in good 
habits and will be able to feed, clothe, and keep themselves 
as salaried servants. 

Secondly. It will no longer be necessary to despatch 
Abyssinian troops on police duties to the low country, and 
much loss of life and other disadvantages will consequently 
be avoided. 

Thirdly. ‘The men who have thus been trained and 
educated in Addis Ababa for several years will, on return to 
their own country, not merely fulfil their police duties, but 
will also spread amongst the people ideas of civilization and 
order which they have learned. 


Ras ‘Tafari is much impressed with the fact that originally 
the negro peoples of the Soudan were, as he expressed it, 
“poor people without clothes, money, or learning,” and 
that under English rule they have acquired the advantages 
of civilization, have become wealthy and are being educated. 
He accordingly hopes by his new proposals to improve 
similarly the condition of the Shankala tribes on his borders, 
and trusts that they also may acquire the benefits which 
such races have obtained elsewhere. 

Such are the preliminary steps which the Regent proposes 
to take. It must not be supposed on the one hand that these 
measures in themselves will alone be adequate, or on the 
other hand that, such as they are, they will be likely to go 
through without opposition. Criticism of various kinds has 
of course already been levelled at them, but I venture to 
think that they may at all events be regarded as a “ sign of 
grace,” a step in the right direction which should be 
regarded with sympathy, encouraged and even supported, 
not only in the country but outside it. 

The Regent proposes to deal not only with slave-dealing 
but also with the question of slavery. ‘This latter problem 
is, however, as anyone with any knowledge of the country 


Slavery & Serfdom 189 


knows full well, an extraordinarily thorny one, and will 
need the greatest care, and much time and patience to 
solve. It is, however, under consideration to commence 
large public works employing many thousands of labourers, 
who would be slaves. These men would be formally freed, 
and part of their wages would be paid to their former 
masters as compensation over a more or less extended 
period. But the practical difficulties in the way of this 
scheme are great, finance is not the least of them, and it is 
improbable in my view that anything very serious is likely to 
materialize in this direction for some time. 

There is in addition to slavery a form of serfdom preva- 
lent in certain districts in Abyssinia which seems to me to 
be more burdensome, and which is known as the gabar 
system. ‘This system is not applicable in provinces such as 
Tigré or Amhara or Gojam, where the farmers and peasants 
are Abyssinians; it obtains only in certain districts con- 
quered by the Abyssinians in which the population is Galla, 
Shankala or otherwise non-Abyssinian. : 

I came across the workings of it in the Arussi country, 
and made a good many inquiries about it ; briefly it appears 
to be based somewhat on the following lines. 

I have previously explained that the governors of prov- 
inces are not paid any salary, and that they have to derive 
their income from the districts they administer ; this applies 
also to their satellites, the sub-governors and officials in the 
provinces. The governor having set aside the proportion 
of the taxation due to the central government, and appro- 
priated to himself the revenues of the major part of his 
holding which he collects by means of agents, allots the 
balance to his subordinates, who in order to collect their 
shares allocate the peasants among themselves as their own 
particular gabars or serfs. A sub-governor may have 200 or 
300, and so on downwards through the hierarchy until we 
reach the soldier who may have two or three gabars as his 
share. These gabars live on and cultivate their own holdings, 


190 Slavery & Serfdom 


but they have to keep their overlords in wood, food, etc. etc., 
and if at any time they fail to supply the stipulated quanti- 
ties they are haled before the judges. The judges, who are 
the sub-governors’ creatures of course, take the side of the 
plaintiff in nine cases out of ten, and the gabar is then fined, 
a process which is cumulative, as he generally has not the 
wherewithal to pay, and which results in the unfortunate 
people being squeezed dry. 

The hotter and more unhealthy the place, the more 
energetically is the system pressed, for the highland Abys- 
sinian hates the low country, and wants to collect as much as 
he can as quickly as possible so as to be able to get back to 
the mountains. Naturally the system varies in the different 
provinces according as the governor is a more or less 
rapacious man, and according to the extent to which he 
controls his subordinates. And the system presses more or 
less heavily on the different provinces according to their 
wealth. In Arussi, for example, where the acreage under 
crops is large and the herds of cattle immense, the people do 
not suffer to anything like the same extent as in other poorer 
districts such as Gourage, Sidamo, and Wallega. 

But whatever be the comparative incidence of the system 
in different parts of the country, it is undoubtedly a perni- 
cious one. And the only remedy for it is the reform of the 
system of remuneration of governors, so that they may 
receive fixed salaries, giving them no excuse for bribery or 
oppression, and no reason for exacting from the peasantry 
more than the state taxation of Io per cent, a by no means 
exorbitant imposition in itself. 

Such a reform hinges on the reform of the whole financial 
system of the country—a heavy and hazardous task for a 
united government, a fortiori for a dual system of rule such 
as exists in Abyssinia. And it is not easy to persuade even 
the more enlightened persons amongst them of the necessity 
for change, for with our Western mentality we are often 
prone to exaggerate the evils of systems foreign to our ideas 


Slavery & Serfdom IQI 


and which we possibly may not thoroughly understand. In 
the East people do not look at things as we do, and condi- 
tions are frequently not as oppressive as they seem to us 
or at all events are not felt as such. Our ideas may be 
excellent, our motives beyond reproach, but still we run up 
against the Arab proverb, a bitter criticism of our efforts— 
“A Moslem ruler though he oppress me and not a kafr 
though he work me weal.” 


CHAPTER XVII 
Trade & Commerce—Volume & Nature 


T was in order to restore the silk trade which had been 

monopolized by the Persians that Justinian early in 

the sixth century solicited the aid of his Christian allies, 

the Abyssinians, who according to Gibbon had recently 
acquired the arts of navigation and the spirit of trade, who 
possessed the rudiments of the arts and sciences, and whose 
vessels traded to Ceylon and India. But in spite of this 
early commencement the external trade and commerce of 
Abyssinia is to-day in a very elementary stage, the main 
reasons for which are no doubt the condition of isolation to 
which it was reduced for so many years by the loss of its 
coastline, and the perpetual strife carried on within its 
borders. 

So long as Abyssinia consisted of a congeries of quasi- 
independent kingdoms living in a state of more or less 
continuous warfare with each other and with their neigh- 
bours it was obviously out of the question to expect any 
commercial development, and as has been already pointed 
out it was not until Menelik had established his position 
that it was possible for the Abyssinians to turn their minds 
to the pursuit of industry, and for foreign countries to 
venture their capital and expend their energy in the country. 

The impetus then given was brought to a standstill by 
subsequent events which I have previously described, and 
consequently it was really not until the middle and end of 
the Great War that conditions could be said to be at all 
conducive to trade expansion. 


Prior to the War a small though profitable trade was 


192 


Trade & Commerce 193 


carried on by a few persons with Abyssinia in the way of 
exporting from there hides, skins, coffee, civet, wax, and 
ivory, and of importing thereinto cotton goods, hardware, 
and a few other manufactures. 

During the War the export trade from Abyssinia increased 
considerably, and good profits were made by the few 
small firms established there. This success encouraged a 
few other ventures after the War, but these (@n common 
with the existing undertakings) were unsuccessful, owing to 
the severe “ slump” which set in in European markets for 
raw materials and imported produce of nearly every kind. 

As might be expected this ‘“‘ slump” led to a period of 
stagnation in Abyssinian trade; many of the local firms, 
small people with little in the way of resources for the most 
part, were hard hit, several left the country, and the position 
even of the larger firms became precarious. ‘This of course 
had its effect on imports, for the natives who had become 
poorer by the lack of demand for their products were 
consequently unable to purchase foreign goods, and stocks 
lay in the go-downs or were sold at greatly reduced and 
unprofitable prices. 

The recent re-establishment of more normal commercial 
conditions, however, and the consequent revival of the 
European demand for raw material, etc., has had the natural 
_ effect of reviving Abyssinian trade, andonce again there would 
seem to be an opportunity for commencing to develop the 
unlimited and almost untouched resources of the country. 

Matters seem to be inclined to commence to move for- 
ward, and when once a real start has been made there are 
practically no limits to the prosperity which should ulti- 
mately be attained. Much has to be done, however, before 
developments on a large scale can be achieved ; the system 
of taxation, the administration of the customs, the means of 
communication, the management of the railway, all need 
improvement and in some cases even reorganization. ‘hese 


factors have hitherto contributed appreciably to hinder 
aos 


194 Trade & Commerce 


trade and commerce, the expansion of which has also been 
checked by other difficulties due to the peculiar nature of 
the currency, the methods hitherto adopted, the class of 
foreigner largely engaged in trade, and last, but by no means 
least, the fact that the country is self-supporting. 

In spite of all difficulties a certain volume of trade has 
been done; full and accurate detailed figures by all routes 
are not easily obtainable, but the following tables will give 
some idea of the volume and character of the exports and 
imports :— 

Toray Votume or Trapz. (In 1000 Francs). 


Via Djibouti. Hentanks All Routes. 
Year. eas oS 
Imports and 

Imports. Exports. Total. Exports. Grand Total. 
1913 20,880 20,600 40,880 8,200 
1914 18,810 20,135 39,945 8,775 
IQI5 14,320 22,660 36,980 7,510 
1916 16,360 22,465 38,825 8,885 
1917 16,700 27,250 43,875 12,715 

Exports, 
Via Djibouti, Via the Soudan. 

Year, | 

Hides, Coffee. Wax. Coffee, | Wax. | Misc. | Total. 

Francs, LE. 1000, 
1910 15,700,000 — — ~ 53 
IQII 11,831,000 ~ — oe 58 
1gI2 8,060,000 — — — 65 
1913 20,600,000 57 19 16 92 
IQI4. 20,135,000 47 25 9 80 
1000 kilogs. | 1000 kilogs. | 1000 kilogs. 

1915 55758 | 4,944 358 28 | 23 5 57 
1916 | 4,043 | 4,520 482 69 | 21 8 97 
1917 5,704 5,093 381 106 | 18 9 | 133 
1918 9,191 3,057 146 155 II 26 192 


1919 8,647 4,510 408 113 25 a7 175 
1920 8,178 2,945 150 221 4 36 262 
1921 2,513 3,908 211 120 5 50 175 
1922 3,804 6,4.70 258 Not yet available. 


Trade & Commerce 195 


The course of events is fairly well indicated by the above 
figures which show a more or less fluctuating rise until 1919 
via Djibouti and 1920 via Gambela, in which years the 
highest point was reached, and a considerable drop in 1921 
owing to the world trade depression, followed by an appre- 
ciable recovery in 1922. At their best these figures represent 
a total export and import trade of between {2,250,000 
and £2,500,000o—an altogether ridiculous figure for a 
country of the size, population, and resources of Abyssinia. 

The principal categories of produce included in the fore- 
going figures are hides, goat and sheep-skins, coffee, wax, 
and ivory. | 

The hides are on the whole small and light, the general 
average weight being about eleven to twelve pounds, though 
some districts produce a heavier hide averaging sixteen to 
eighteen pounds. ‘The supply is practically unlimited as the 
herds of cattle are estimated to amount to at least ten 
million head, and the Abyssinians are great meat-eating 
people ; in Addis Ababa alone several hundred cattle are 
slaughtered daily. 

The hides vary in value according to the different districts 
from which they come; the “ butcher” hides produced 
in Addis are of course the most valuable, and of those 
brought in from the provinces Djimma hides are generally 
regarded as the best, while those originating in Harrar 
command the lowest prices. Abyssinian hides would com- 
mand a higher price on the European market than they do 
were it not for the faulty methods for flaying and treating 
them ; they are frequently cut in taking them off, and are 
generally pegged out in the sun instead of being left in the 
shade to dry. They are then often sent down to Djiboutiina 
very dirty state, washed in the sun there, and again spread 
out in the sun to dry. All this treatment is very bad for 
them and causes them to depreciate in value ; it is, moreover, 
quite unnecessary for, by proper local treatment (into the 
technical details of which it is superfluous to enter here) the 


196 Trade & Commerce 


handling and delay and consequent expense could be saved, 
and the hides put on the market in better condition and 
consequently at a better price. This aspect of the question 
is one which is well worthy of attention, and of systematic 
propaganda in the country; for the Addis “ butchery ” 
hides, which are properly treated, already command a much 
better price. 

Goat and sheep-skins come from various parts of the 
country and are available in large numbers; they are of 
good quality and find a ready sale, though the sheep have 
little wool ; the best are the Harrar black head sheep-skins. 
As many as 5,000,000 skins were exported in 1916, but 
the figures have dwindled considerably since then. 

There are two varieties of coffee grown in Abyssinia, the 
production of both of which is extensive, and could be 
immensely increased both actually and per acre cultivated. 
The plant is claimed to have been the original mocha, and 
to have been first grown in Kaffa (from whence it derived 
its name); thence it was transplanted to Yemen where 
greater accessibility to Europe enabled the Arabian offspring 
to put its Abyssinian parent into the shade. 

Certainly the long-berry mocha—by which name the 
cultivated Harrar coffee is known—is excellent in flavour 
and compares favourably with any other coffee; it com- 
mands a ready sale, and from 3000 to 5000 tons have been 
exported annually for some time. 

The other, and inferior, variety known as Abyssinian 
wild coffee, grows in most parts of the country, but mainly 
in the west and south-west. This does not come to Europe, 
but finds its way through Gorei, Gambela, and the Soudan 
to Khartoum, in which market it is all absorbed. The Egypt- 
ians prefer it to any other, and will always give a higher price 
for it than for its competitors. ‘The value of the export of 
this crop varies a good deal; during the last seven years it has 
ranged from {E 28,000 to £E 221,000. 

Wax of good quality is exported both east and west, 


Trade & Commerce 197 


nearly one and a half million pounds being sent out in 1916. 
But since the closing of the principal market for this com- 
modity, viz. Russia, the trade has very much diminished, 
though it is gradually finding its way to other places in 
small quantities. 

Ivory is a diminishing factor; there are no effective 
game laws in Abyssinia, and the females and young are 
killed indiscriminately with the inevitable result. The 
larger male tusks are exported through the Soudan; the 
female and smaller ones are not allowed to go out this way 
owing to the salutary British regulations in the Soudan, but 
unfortunately this does not prevent the trade but merely 
diverts it eastward through Djibouti. 

The import trade consists, as might be expected, mainly of 
cotton goods. The demand for sheeting (abougedid) should 
be enormous in normal circumstances, for the Abyssinians, 
both men and women, all wear the national dress of cotton 
shirt trousers and chamma; in 1916 it was estimated 
that 30,000,000 yards were imported. 

Other imports for which there are a demand are different 
varieties of cotton piece goods, such as drills, kouchas, kutas, 
etc., yarns, silks, fancy stuffs, cutlery and hardware, building 
materials (especially corrugated iron roofing), tinned food- 
stuffs, etc. 

But the Abyssinian market is a peculiar one, and very 
special knowledge of its conditions and requirements are 
necessary in dealing with it; moreover, it is hardly in a 
position as yet to absorb much in the way of imports until 
it has recovered more fully from its recent period of stag- 
nation and consequent impoverishment of the population 
But its ultimate potentialities are boundless. 

The natural trade routes of the country are :— 


1. Eastward from Addis to Djibouti by rail for goods 
coming from Addis and from the country lying between 
that town and the coast. Goods are carried from Djibouti 


198 Trade & Commerce 


by French steamer (the only ones that call there) to 
Marseilles, and thence transhipped to their ports of 
destination, or are taken across to the Red Sea to Aden 
and there transhipped into English or other bottoms for 
conveyance to their ultimate destination. 

2. Westward from the western provinces by mule 
caravan to Gambela on the Baro River where the goods 
are shipped by river steamer down the Sobat and the 
Nile to Khartoum, and (if for Europe) thence via Port 
Soudan. 

3. North-east from Tigré by caravan to Massowah, 
and further south from the Wollo country to Assab in 
Erythrea} 

4. South-east from the frontier districts of Harrar to 
British Somaliland, Zeila, Bulhar, and Berbera, via 
Hargeisa. 

5. North-west from Gojam and Dembea by caravan 
via Roseires and Sennar, or via Gallabat and Gedaref via 
the Nile to Soudan. 


Of these routes the first is now by far the most important, 
carrying between 70 and 80 per cent of the total trade; the 
second and third carry about 20 per cent between them, and 
the bulk of the remainder (about 4 per cent on the average) 
goes via route No.4; the others are negligible. 

The last-named routes were never of any great value 
although they might well be, for they would tap the rich 
and fertile provinces of the North now almost untouched ; 
but the fourth, through British Somaliland, was very impor- 
tant before it was killed by the advent of the railway, though 
now only a little petroleum, and salt, and rice for the Oga- 
den and other Somali’s come in, whilst gum, hides, and 
ostrich feathers are exported. This is the more unfortu- 
nate, inasmuch as Somaliland contains at least one harbour 
(Berbera) which offers far greater natural advantages to 
shipping than Djibouti, and which by the expenditure of 


1 Note at end of Chapter. 


Trade & Commerce 199 


comparatively moderate sums could be made into quite a 
good port. But, as it is, Djibouti, a poor harbour open to 
the monsoon and so shallow that boats must lie a long way 
out, remains the eastern doorway of Abyssinia; the authori- 
ties seem, moreover, inclined to endeavour to bring it into 
competition with Aden so far as the Red Sea trade is 
concerned, if one may judge from the improvements which 
are being made or contemplated, and the remarkably low 
charges which are imposed on shipping as compared with 
Aden, amounting to from two-fifths to one-twelfth.? 

It is not altogether easy to determine exactly the inter- 
national share of the import and export trade; the trade 
figures are not a good index and the nationality of the 
traders is hardly a criterion. These consist for the most part 
of Indians, Arabs, Greeks, Syrians, and Armenians, with a 
sprinkling of French and Italian houses (some ot which are 
of fair size) and a single British firm. 

About the bulk of the Armenian, Syrian, and Greek 
traders the less said the better; any traveller with a know- 
ledge of the East can fill in the gap. I cannot refrain, how- 
ever, from quoting one example of the methods adopted 
by these gentry, and as the story, which was told me by 
the man himself with some pride was corroborated from 
other sources, it is probably true. He was anxious to get his 
coffee crop down to the Nile ahead of his competitors in 
order to secure priority on the steamers, and thus obtain 
the better prices ruling in Khartoum at the beginning of 
the season. So, as his caravan journeyed along he carefully 
and systematically broke down all the bridges behind him 
leaving to his competitors (who incidentally were his compat- 
riots) the pleasant job of bridge building at every river they 
came to—a really bright example to set the Abyssinians of 
“European ” trade methods and standards. 

There is quite a large Indian house of business—a branch 
of a Bombay house—which does the bulk of the import 
business and a good deal of export in addition ; the Arabs are 

2 Note at end of Chapter. 


200 Trade & Commerce 


concerned mainly with the hide trade; the French and 
Italians do both import and export business. 

So far as the different foreign countries are concerned 
their interest would appear to be somewhat as follows :— 

The British send a very limited quantity of Manchester 
goods (cottons, yarns, etc.) and absorb a small portion of the 
heavier hides, a little of the Harrar coffee, and (in the Sou- 
dan) all the Abyssinian wild coffee from the west. India 
sends in cotton piece goods, yarns, and silks. ‘The French 
send wines and a little in the way of trade goods, take some 
of the Harrar coffee, and a good proportion of the lighter 
hides. The Italians also send in little beyond wine, but 
take some of the lighter hides. The Americans send in a 
large quantity of cottons (grey sheetings especially) and 
take some of the Harrar coffee and light hides. The 
Japanese send in considerable quantities of cotton goods, 
sheetings, drills, etc., and this in an increasing proportion. 
The Russian market used to absorb most of the wax; this 
now goes in small quantities to England and Germany. 

The Germans began to get a real footing in Abyssinian 
trade prior to the War—they imported considerable quanti- 
ties of hardware and miscellaneous goods and exported 
light hides and skins ; indeed in one year they almost cleared 
the skin market in Harrar. Austria also took a certain 
amount of the lighter hides and skins. 

During the War Russia, Germany, and Austria were 
eliminated, but Japanese and American cottons came in in 
increasing proportions ; as compared with British cottons 
they were after the War much cheaper (especially the 
Japanese) and of equally good quality. Recently both 
Germany and Austria, especially the former, have again 
been taking an interest in Abyssinian trade, and quite a 
number of Germans have found their way into Addis in the 
last year. Last summer the late German Minister for 
Agriculture in East Africa, accompanied by a geologist and 
a financier, visited Addis Ababa, and it is believed laid cer- 


PREPARING RAW COTTON FOR SPINNING. 


By means of a gut-stringed bow and arrow the raw cotton is “‘ flicked ’’ continuously until the seed 
still remaining (after the bulk has been taken out by hand) is thus removed, and the cotton fluffed 
out into a white snowy mass. 


WEAVING. 


With this primitive hand-loom extremely fine tissues for persons of rank are woven from native 
cotton, which is as good as the Egyptian variety. 


" 


Trade & Commerce 201 


tain proposals before Herr Stinnes ; the latter, however, is 
reported to have thought the fact of the railway and its 
port being in French hands would raise insuperable difficul- 
ties for German trade. 

The high price of English cottons was a stumbling-block 
to the development of that branch of the trade before the 
slump, and I do not know how prices would compare now. 
But at that time the natives preferred the English goods and 
would even pay a little more for them, 5 or even Io per cent 
insome cases. They would not, however, pay the very large 
differences which were asked, and unless more reasonable 
figures are quoted when the import trade opens out again 
it is to be feared that we shall be left behind. High wages 
and large profits and heavy taxes are all no doubt admirable 
from the point of view of the different recipients, but 
when pushed too far they do not appear to the outsider to 
make for the acquisition of new markets against capable and 
strenuous competitors. 

As regards internal trade one of the best features in 
Abyssinia was that with the exception of the Bank of 
Abyssinia, and of a tobacco régie, there were no monop- 
olies. Various monopolies had been granted in the past, 
but these caused such abuses and were so generally detri- 
mental, that they were all abolished. And by a treaty made 
between the French and the Abyssinians in 1908 the latter 
agreed not to grant fresh ones, whilst in the Tripartite 
Agreement of 1906 between England, France, and Italy, 
the following clause would appear to be designed to prevent 
nationals of any of the three signatory countries obtaining 
monopolies :— 

“ As regards demands for agricultural, commercial, and 
industrial concessions in Ethiopia, the three Powers under- 
take to instruct their representatives to act in such a way 
that concessions which may be accorded in the interest of 


one of the three States may not be injurious to the interests 
of the two others.” 


202 Trade & Commerce 


Unfortunately by the use of the blessed word “‘ régie ” 
the salutary provisions of the above-mentioned enactments 
would seem to be in danger of being side-tracked. For a 
liquor monopoly has recently been granted to a foreign 
company, under the title of “‘ Régie des Alcools,”” and a 
State match régie has been created. Of course it will be 
said that these are not monopolies in the ordinary sense of 
the word, and, moreover, that they deal with commodities 
which in Europe are subject to similar treatment. The 
Alcohol Régie will at all events serve one valuable purpose if 
it succeeds in suppressing the local distillation of filthy and 
harmful spirit now carried on by small Greek or other traders. 
Nevertheless a monopoly is a monopoly by whatever name 
it is called, whether it is run by the State or by an individual, 
and the innovation seems a dangerous one; whether it 
is likely to prove successful or not time alone will show. 

Certainly the tobacco régie has worked well, and has 
proved a lucrative investment for the holders, two capable 
Armenian gentlemen, who have I believe made quite a good 
thing out of it in combination with a general trading business. 

The Bank of Abyssinia on the other hand has not been 
quite so successful. It is a branch of the National Bank of 
Egypt and was established some seventeen years ago, since 
when it has passed through various vicissitudes and has 
encountered many difficulties. Nevertheless, thanks to the 
very capable Englishmen who direct its course at Addis 
(there are also branches at Dirre-Daoua and Gorei, one has 
been recently opened at Djibouti, and another has recently 
closed at Harrar), the Bank succeeded in paying a dividend 
for the first time in 1918, and followed this up with others 
in1919 and1g20. Unfortunately the slump in 1920-1 toldits 
inevitable tale, and the good record was broken in that year. 

The Bank has a practical monopoly, and theoretically all 
banking is entirely in its hands, though a good deal of 
financial business of sorts is done by the banyans and other 
Indian traders. 


Trade & Commerce 203 


As to the development of the country by means of 
commercial, industrial, or mining concessions, this has so 
far been practically a negligible factor. I do not think the 
Abyssinians are altogether to blame in the matter; for 
they have given innumerable concessions of one kind and 
another to foreigners of various nationalities, and with very 
few exceptions they have derived no benefit whatever from 
them. The concessions have never been developed, and as a 
general rule they have merely served to enrich the original 
holders by giving them something to re-sell at.a higher 
price to equally worthless people, while preventing the 
exploitation of the subject of the concession by others. I 
heard of only one concession of any importance that had 
been granted that was actually being worked on a business- 
like basis and was showing profits for the concessionaire 
and for the Government, and that was a small timber felling 
proposition, the owners of which supplied Addis Ababa 
with wood at much profit to themselves, whilst paying a 
substantial royalty to the State. 

Of course concessions have been granted to perfectly good 
and sound people, which through no fault of the concession- 
aires have for one reason or another come to an untimely end 
or have not so far borne fruit. But these will be found to be 
the exceptions to the general rule I have indicated above. 

I said a little way back that it was not altogether the 
fault of the Abyssinians that nothing had been done in this 
direction. But I do not mean to suggest that they have 
been blameless in the matter, for while they may well be 
disgusted with some of the exploiters who have hitherto 
been most successful in obtaining concessions, they have on 
their side done little or nothing to obtain really first-class 
European assistance to open up their country. 

Whether this has been due to fear or suspicion, or dislike 
of progress, or a combination of all these, 1 do not know, 
but the fact remains that ‘“‘ Concessions” have not been 
looked upon with favour by the Abyssinian Government. 


204 Trade & Commerce 


Possibly the fact that seekers after concessions have usually 
in the past been backed by their respective Legations (and 
opposed by the other Legations), and that the grant of a 
concession has been regarded as a diplomatic success by the 
country whose national obtained it, is a contributory cause. 
And also I think that the Abyssinian regards the grant of a 
concession as giving away part of his country ; certainly he 
objects to cattle concessions because he thinks that the 
export of cattle means starvation for himself, or at any rate 
a diminished supply of meat. 

Happily this state of affairs is not likely to continue, for 
the Regent is fully alive to the necessity of overcoming his 
compatriots’ dislike for concessions, and is determined to 
facilitate development by this means. I referred a few pages 
further back to a concession which had just been given to a 
foreign Company to undertake the alcohol monopoly. ‘This 
group, which is reported to be a powerful one, is proposing to 
extend its activities in various other directions, and although 
at the time of writing it has hardly had time to find its feet it 
seems likely to mark a new stage in the progress of Abyssinia. 
It is all the more unfortunate that it is not a British concern, 
but if its efforts are successful a good effect should be pro- 
duced as regards foreign enterprises generally, and the path 
should be made easier for the granting of concessions for 
much-needed public works, such as water-supply, roads, rail- 
ways, and the many other requirements of an undeveloped 
land. ‘There is room and to spare for all in Abyssinia. 


1 A recent ministerial statementin the Italian Senate indicates the re- 
construction of the port of Massowah at a cost of Lire 25,000,000, and 
consideration of railway extension towards Abyssinia from there “une des 
portes de ’Empire Ethiopien.” 


2 For an 8,000-ton ship the port dues at Djibouti would amount to 400 
francs whether calling for bunkers or to load and/or discharge cargo; at 
Aden the dues would be 190 rupees if calling for bunkers, and g1o rupees 
if loading and/or discharging cargo—in one case 2} times, in the other 12 
times the Djibouti rate. 


CHAPTER XVIII 
Trade & Commerce—Dificulties 


VERY interesting factor in matters commercial, 
but one which adds appreciably to the difficulties 
of trade in or with Abyssinia, is the question of 
currency. The only coin generally accepted in 

the country is the dollar or irr, which exists in two varieties 
—the “‘ Maria Theresa’ and the “ Menelik,” and of these by 
far the most important is the “ Maria Theresa,” a hand- 
some but unwieldly piece of money about the size of a 
four-shilling piece, with an effigy of the Empress, who has 
given her name to the coins on one side and a fine represen- 
tation of the Austrian arms on the other. 

These dollars were originally minted in Vienna in 1780, 
no doubt for the purposes of Austrian commercial develop- 
ment in the Near East, and found their way into the Soudan, 
along the northern and eastern coasts of Africa as far west as 
Algiers and as far south as Madagascar, where I have seen it 
stated that until recently “its rudely clipped fragments 
were meticulously weighed in pocket scales carried by 
everybody who went marketing.” It was legal tender in 
Austria up to 1854, in Tunis and Algiers up to 1886, and in 
Egypt up to 1888 ; and for the Napier expedition of 1868, 
the Khartoum relief expedition of 1884-5 and the Italian 
campaigns in Tripoli and Abyssinia, it was necessary to 
obtain large supplies of these coins from Austria. 

In Abyssinia it still holds the field and practically nothing 
else will pass; so particular are the natives that in some 


parts of the country they will not take it if it is too brand 
: 205 


206 Trade & Commerce 


new, or if it is too much worn ; I have seen natives carefully 
scrutinizing it to see if the little brooch on the shoulder of 
Maria Theresa’s effigy is clearly visible, and if not they have 
returned it to me. 

The dollar also serves as the unit of weight; the weight 
of one dollar (an ounce) is the oketie, and the weight of 600 
dollars is the frasula (37% lbs.). The former is used for 
small and valuable articles of trade such as civet, while the 
latter is the general measure of weight by which hides are 
bought. Coffee is usually purchased by the kantar (100 lbs.) 
in the western districts. 

The Emperor Menelik caused to be struck in Paris from 
the 10,000,000 lire in silver obtained as an indemnity from 
the Italians after the 1896 campaign a number of coins of 
the same size as the Maria Theresa dollar, bearing the lion of 
Juda on one side and his efigy on the other, and known 
accordingly as the Menelik dollar ; but in some parts of the 
country even this coin will not pass, in spite of the prestige 
still attaching to the late Emperor’s name. He had also 
minted three other silver coins, namely, half dollars (alad), 
quarter dollars (rub), and piastres (guerche or tamoun), the 
last-named being nominally equivalent to one-sixteenth of a 
dollar, although it was never possible to obtain this number 
either at the Post Office, the Bank, or anywhere else, the 
change given varying from eleven to fourteen. The piastre 
coins, owing no doubt to their convenience, are pretty 
generally current, but the half and quarter dollars are less 
popular. Curiously enough these coins are in two varieties ; 
in one the lion of Juda appearing on one side is given a long 
curly tail and in the other a short straight tail, and the 
former variety for some reason I cannot explain is generally 
rejected by natives in the provinces. I have again and again 
seen them examine the lion’s tail very carefully, and then 
bring back the coin to me and ask for another, saying that it 
is not good, but I have never been able to discover the 
reason for this, for the coins are identical in value. 


Trade & Commerce 207 


Gold sovereigns and half sovereigns (handsome coins, 
rather smaller than ours) were also minted by Menelik, but 
were never put in circulation ; I believe silver coins equiva- 
lent to one-eighth of a dollar were also minted, but they are 
not used and I never saw one. 

Two copper coins were also minted by Menelik, about 
the size of a sixpenny and a threepenny bit, and of a nominal 
value of a thirty-second and a sixty-fourth of a dollar, but 
these are rarely seen, and J could never induce any native 
outside Addis to accept one in payment for his goods, though 
I have tried to do so as a matter of curiosity. 

Other forms of currency are bars of salt, cartridges, and in 
certain remote districts specially shaped pieces of iron, all 
of which in different parts of the country bore varying 
ratios to the dollar ; the inconvenience of all these may be 
readily imagined, especially salt bars which got chipped and 
melted, and iron which was terribly bulky ; no doubt on 
that account they are rarely utilized now, whilst as for 
cartridges the prohibition of importation has made them 
more and more difficult to obtain. 

The Bank of Abyssinia has issued dollar notes, but these 
are not accepted outside Addis Ababa, and I was told that 
although the notes are practically Government notes, as the 
Bank has the Government monopoly of issue, yet the 
Government itself will not accept them! 

Consequently traders and travellers are for all practical 
purposes reduced to the use of the dollar, and every pound 
of coffee or wax, every hide or skin purchased in the interior 
must be paid for literally in hard cash—paper money, bills, 
cheques, etc., are of no value. So, in order to buy, say, 100 
tons of coffee in the west country for shipment to the Soudan 
it would first of all be necessary to buy the requisite dollars in 
Addis—say, some $32,000—load them on to mules and send 
them for a month’s journey across country. And as the 
weight of these dollars would be about 2000 lb. without 
packing, it would require over 200 mules for the purpose! 


208 Trade & Commerce 


I have myself seen a caravan of 300 mules laden in this way 
setting off for precisely this object. 

Apart from the inconvenience and expense and delay of 
this modus operandi, it inevitably entails complications of 
another kind in the purchase of the coffee or whatever 
commodity it may be. For it is not only necessary to con- 
sider the price in dollars at which the commodity is bought, 
but the price paid originally for the dollars—to say nothing 
of the value in dollars or whatever currency may be obtained 
for the goods when exported and sold, e.g. £ Egyptian in 
the Soudan, sterling in England, francs in France, rupees in 
Aden, etc. etc. 

The use of the dollar in this manner in fact causes.it to 
become a commodity rather than a currency, an inter- 
mediate commodity in the process of purchase or sale of 
the country’s produce. And as this commodity has since the 
War suffered alarming fluctuations it is an element of even 
more vital importance in undertaking business in Abyssinia 
than it was before. 

The following little table will give some idea of the 
vagaries of this Hapsburg survival : 


Intrinsic value of 


Sterling value of dollar (based on 


Date. Price of silver. 


dollar. price of silver). 
1908-16 OLLI ADR i Pence per oz. 
Round about 10 — From 24-36 
Dec., 1917 7°50 6-78 434 

Is eaGIS 7 6:05 484%, 

» 1919 5 3°88 76 

» 1920 9°60 7°20 40% 

» 1921 {1°50 8°55 343 
Mar., 1922 II-I0 — — 
ay toe 10°30 —_ — 
COO G tay, 10 ile Bed 
Novis) 13) 9°65 — — 
Decca ry, 9:60 — — 
Jen, 1923 9°30 oo — 


GRINDING TEFF FOR BREADMAKING, 


The lower stone is tilted forward so that as the grain is crushed by the upper 
stone rubbing backwards and forwards the flour falls down in front. Note 
the difference in type between the Abyssinian (left) and the Shankala (right). 


THE LION GATE AT HARRAR, 


One of the five gateways of the ancient city described by Sir Richard 
Burton, the first European to visit it. 


Trade & Commerce 209 


Although the above figures cannot compare in gymnastics 
with some European currencies, yet they are sufficiently 
striking, showing as they do very pronounced variations from 
year to year and within the year. Some of the reasons—and 
there are a variety—are fairly obvious, such for example as 
the price of silver and the course of world trade. 

Thus we see a rapid rise from 1917 to 1919 in sympathy 
with a corresponding rise in the world-price of silver and an 
increase of Abyssinian trade; a great fall from 1920 to 1922, 
owing mainly to the world slump in trade, and a continuous 
steady recovery since then, until, at the time of writing, the 
dollar is considerably above its normal pre-war value of 
about ten to {1. 

But quite apart from these causes there are other factors 
that operate to affect the price of the dollar. During the 
War and for some time afterwards the supply of the coins 
from Austria necessarily ceased, although the demand 
continued and indeed increased vigorously—to the obvious 
enhancement of their value. A similar result is due to the 
fact that they are wanted not only for purposes of legitimate 
barter, but are also largely used by the natives for melting 
down for making their articles of jewellery and adornment. 
Moreover, the native very generally hoards any possessions 
he may have in the way of dollars, by burying them ina place 
which he reveals to no one. Consequently not only are 
these coins withdrawn from circulation temporarily, but 
in many cases they are entirely lost, as the man dies 
without having had time to reveal the whereabouts of his 
bank. 

To these drains on the available supply must be added the 
inducement to export dollars in recent times on account of 
the price of silver ruling. And though the export of dollars 
was prohibited it was quite well known that quantities went 
out by every train that left—it was even alleged, with what 
truth I do not know, that the engine-drivers used to hide 


them under the coal in the tenders. 
r@) 


210 Trade & Commerce 


The outlook therefore may become serious if steps are 
not taken to increase the coinage in circulation, as the effect 
of an unduly inflated price of the dollar due to an artificial 
shortage of this kind would be to raise the export price of 
the produce of the country to such an extent that it would 
be unsaleable in Europe. And unless the native can sell his 
produce he will have no money to buy imports of cotton and 
other goods. 

To some extent this has happened in the last year or two. 
Abyssinian produce was unsaleable in Europe during 1920-1 
owing to the collapse of markets there, and conse- 
quently nothing was bought in Abyssinia. ‘There being as 
a result no demand for dollars, the dollar fell until it reached 
the figure quoted above, i.e. below its normal value. But 
the moment the demand for produce (and consequently 
for dollars to buy it) revived in 1922 the dollar rose again 
because of the reasons already given for the cessation of the 
supply. ‘Thus things must move in a vicious circle, and the 
difficulties of the position are still further emphasized by 
the fluctuations which go on in the country during the year 
owing to trading operations being necessarily largely 
restricted to the dry season. The price of the dollar almost 
always (though not universally) exhibits a tendency to rise 
during the dry season and to fall during the rains because 
of the purchase of dollars by traders as and when they need 
them in the course of the dry months. This means that 
produce purchased at the end of the season must necessarily 
be more expensive to a European than if he bought that — 
produce (or bought his dollars) at the beginning of the dry 
weather. The inference to be drawn is obvious, and does not 
need dwelling upon. 

The tendencies of the situation and the advantages to be 
derived from it have clearly been perceived by the Italians, 
for I observed in a recent report from Vienna that Signor 
Mussolini had in the course of his negotiations with the 
Austrian Chancellor during the month of April, 1923, dis- 


Trade & Commerce 211 


cussed a proposal to grant the Italian Government the right 
to mint the Maria ‘Theresa dollars. 

While I do not in any way pretend to be an expert, I have 
devoted some space to the discussion of this question as it is 
one which is at the basis of all Abyssinian trade, and should 
be clearly understood and examined by all who contemplate 
commercial dealings with that country. Its importance is, 
I have found, hardly grasped by persons who have not come 
into actual contact with the difficulties—and opportunities 
—which it presents. 

Another factor which limits production, and as a natural 
corollary reduces the purchasing power of the native, is the 
system of taxation. I have described this system fully 
elsewhere, and from this it will readily be seen that instead 
of being allowed and encouraged to produce as much as ever 
he can, and consequently to produce more cheaply, the 
cultivator has been in many parts of Abyssinia treated in 
such a way as to cause him to produce the minimum. ‘The 
local governors in many cases took under the guise of 
taxation not merely the legal 10 per cent in kind, but also 
as much more as their particular degree of rapacity allowed 
them to. 

Their soldiery helped themselves still further. Insome 
parts the natives were not allowed to begin to sell their 
coffee to traders before a certain arbitrary date, dependent 
on the will of the local Governor, even though demand 
might be great, prices good, and transport available at the 
moment. In one district I heard that when the native had 
sold his coffee he was not infrequently pillaged of his 
resulting dollars by the soldiery before he could either buy 
the cotton goods he needed, or hoard up his money by 
burying it. (I am glad to say this Governor has been 
removed). 

Consequently he has been driven to produce as little as 
possible, that is, just enough to keep him and his family 
going, and to pay his taxes. This reduced his buying power, 


212 Trade & Commerce 


and as a result reduced the possible amount of imports, and 
impoverished the whole country. 

Fortunately this state of affairs is being looked into and 
certain alterations are under consideration; the Ras recently 
visited one of his provinces, remitted a certain portion of the 
taxation, and actually abolished entirely the duty on cotton 
in order to increase production. 

The merchant is further hampered by the system of 
Customs administration, and by the fact that all goods 
coming into the capital by railway have a three-fold 
Customs barrier to cross—the French at Djibouti, and 
the Abyssinian at Dirre-Daoua and at Addis Ababa. 

The Djibouti Customs is a most irritating bit of official- 
dom. The goods are merely in transit, the port is presum- 
ably a free one for goods in transit, and unless it is a case 
of arms and ammunition the authorities are not in any way 
concerned with what goes through. Yet long lists have to 
be made out (or had to up till recently) in duplicate and in 
handwriting, not typewriting, specifying every package, its 
contents, numbers, quantity, value, etc. etc. In one instance 
the precise contents of each bottle and box in a large con- 
signment of medicines had to be specified in detail. Then 
although no Customs duties as such are allowable, yet so- 
called statistical and transit dues are charged, making up 
quite a number of small items. And at one time, nearlya 
year after the end of the Great War, the authorities were 
levying, incredible as it may seem, a contribution of Io per 
cent 77 kind on all transit consignments of sugar, paraffin, and 
rice, for the purpose of feeding the inhabitants of the Colony 
because they were short of these commodities ! 

All this causes expense to the importer, for apart from 
the actual payments, an otherwise unnecessary staff has to be 
kept at Djibouti for filling up the innumerable forms, work- 
ing the goods through the Customs, complying with the 
official formalities, and getting the goods put on rail. It is 
interesting to note in this connection that so ardent a 


Trade & Commerce 213 


Frenchman as Prince Henri d’Orleans complained bitterly 
in his book of the hindrance to trade with Abyssinia caused 
by the Djibouti Customs. 

Having run the gauntlet at Djibouti, the goods eventually 
arrive at Dirre-Daoua. Here is perhaps a still greater burden 
and handicap, for though the goods may be booked through 
for Addis Ababa and have to go through the Customs there, 
yet everything is turned out of the train, opened, examined, 
and delayed ; it may be imagined what loss and expense is 
incurred as a result of paying Customs duty in two instal- 
ments. To repack hundreds of cases in the careful and 
skilled way in which they were originally packed in Europe is, 
after they have been pulled to pieces by the Abyssinian 
Customs officials to satisfy their curiosity, an impossibility. 
And the cases once having been opened are not properly 
fastened again, goods are pilfered from them while they are 
lying about (often for weeks) at Dirre-Daoua, and the 
remnants frequently arrive broken and damaged. Conse- 
quently another staff has to be kept at Dirre-Daoua to deal 
with goods there, and to effect their transport with as little 
loss and damage as possible by means of hard work, cajolery, 
and bribery. Again and again were representations made 
to the central authorities on this question, but matters 
remained in statu quo; long delayed improvements have 
however just recently been put in hand. 

Finally the goods arrive at Addis Ababa, where there is 
yet another Customs examination and payment of the 
balance of the 12 per cent ad valorem duty leviable. And 
the assessment of the value in the case of goods not 
previously specially tariffed gives rise to difficulties which 
may be imagined. 

For exportation, permits are required, and export duty is 
payable, leviable by weight. Incredible as it may seem the 
goods to be exported from Addis—hides for example—are 
all taken out of the train at Dirre-Daoua and weighed over 
again! Now they have probably been some time en route 


214 Trade & Commerce 


exposed to the elements ; if it is during the rainy season, the 
wet will have made them heavier, if during the dry season 
the sun may have made them lighter. In either case the 
unhappy exporter is liable to be fined for having made a 
false declaration. I am, however, glad to be able to say that 
a slight concession has recently been made in this connection, 
by discharging only 10 per cent of the consignment for re- 
weighing and checking. ‘This however is to some extent 
nullified by charging porterage on 66 per cent of the 
whole consignment. 

These are some of the Customs difficulties which apply to 
goods coming or going by railway. For goods travelling in 
the interior by mule caravan other joys are in store. A per- | 
mit has to be obtained and a tax per mule load paid before 
starting. But every local governor through whose territory 
a caravan journeys has established his own fella or octroi, 
and levies anything he likes from a quarter of a dollar to a 
dollar per mule. His representatives frequently require a 
certain amount of “financial inducement” to let the 
caravan through, and as a caravan may have to pass through 
four or five different governorships the difficulties and cost 
involved are considerable. 

Some time ago complaint was made of this, and it was 
suggested that a single central tax per mule should be 
imposed at the point of departure, and that local kellas 
should be abolished. This was agreed to, and the increased 
central tax was imposed, but some of the local kellas still 
function, as their proprietors felt aggrieved at this unjusti- 
fiable curtailment of their revenue. 

The working of the railway itself also gives rise to real 
difficulty. It is hard to believe, but none the less true, that 
goods take almost as long to come from Djibouti to Addis by 
rail as they did formerly by camel caravan, and the condition 
in which they arrive is frequently little better. Six weeks to 
two months is a normal period in which to expect one’s 
goods, and one consignment belonging to a friend of ours 


Trade & Commerce 215 


arrived at Aden on 3rd November and was received by him 
from the Customs in Addis Ababa on the 23rd January, a 
period of eleven and a half weeks ! 

This is due partly to the vexatious triple Customs ar- 
rangement referred to above, partly to the transhipment 
at Dirre-Daoua, partly to the lack of rolling stock, and partly 
to the general lack of proper organization on the railway. 

I was given some remarkable instances of this during my 
last visit. Apparently the Company refuse to issue rate- 
books to traders on the grounds that such information is 
“ confidential ”—a somewhat humorous effort to disguise 
the fact that their own staff do not know the rates them- 
selves. So many were the mistakes, and so heavy the over- 
charges, that an ex-employé of the railway set up in business 
as a sort of “ rate-recovery agent,” and many of the bigger 
merchants utilized his services with profit to him and to 
themselves. His modus operandi was simple : the merchants 
sent him their “lettres de voiture,” and from his inside 
knowledge and relations he was able to check the charges 
and to secure repayment of the excess; his fee was 50 per 
cent of the amount recovered if successful, and nothing 
otherwise. I believe that his success was such that he was 
offered a lucrative post—elsewhere ! 

Then, again, the Company provide no depots or ware- 
houses at Addis, and as a result goods sent to the station 
are exposed to both pilfering and the effects of sun and 
rain. They are not formally accepted for transit by the 
Company until they are actually loaded on to the trucks, 
partly because of the responsibility for custody, and partly 
because the railway are bound to deliver goods at Djibouti 
within a limited time from formal receipt, and, though the 
goods may be lying at the station for weeks, the period of 
transit does not begin to count until they are loaded up. 

This is due mainly to the shortage of rolling stock, for 
which the Company are responsible ; and the effect of the 
shortage of rolling stock is accentuated by the Dirre-Daoua 


216 Trade & Commerce 


Customs arrangements described above, for which the 
Company is certainly not to blame. 

The responsible French representatives of the Company 
in Abyssinia are very charming and delightful people who 
do everything they can for the convenience of travellers 
(travellers, in fact, have very little to complain of), and who 
always seem to me to be good men struggling against adver- 
sity. ‘Their job is not an easy one, and they have a pretty 
poor, if numerous, subordinate staff. 

Thus currency, taxation, customs, and transport all play 
their part in hampering rather than assisting trade, and, as 
I have already said, it is an essential preliminary to develop- 
ment on a large scale that these services should be improved 
or reorganized. ‘Taxation and customs are the first things 
to be tackled in the country, and every well-wisher of 
Abyssinia can only hope that the Regent’s efforts to deal 
with these matters will meet with the success they deserve 
in the interests alike of the Abyssinians themselves and of 
those who have dealings with them. 

It is remarkable that, in spite of these hindrances and 
drawbacks, the volume of trade should be what it is ; it is, 
however, but a small fraction of what it might be, and of 
what it no doubt will be. 


CHAPTER XIX 
Agriculture & Industry 


T is the barest truth to say that Abyssinia is self- 
supporting so far as foodstuffs are concerned; not 
only does she actually produce more than enough to 
feed her people, but she could easily produce a large 
exportable surplus, a fact which is hardly surprising when 
it is realized that the density of her population is probably 
less than one twenty-fifth of our own, or, in other words, 
that a country nearly four times as large as Britain has a 
population not much over one-sixth or one-seventh of ours. 

Owing to the varying levels and the consequent difference 
of temperature almost everything that can be grown any- 
where can be grown in Abyssinia, tropical and European. 
Every traveller who has been there bears testimony to this 
feature of the country. 

For example, Mr. Wylde reported in 1896-7 that “within 
a few hours’ march the following variety of fruit, grain, and 
vegetables will be found. . . . The banana, grape, orange, 
lime, pomegranate, peach, apricot, and blackberry; dhurra, 
maize, wheat, bhamea, tomato, potato, and many other 
sorts of vegetables.” 

And again, describing another part of the country, he 
says: “‘ First the tropical reeds, then the sugar-cane and 
bananas, followed by cotton fields . . . dhurra followed the 
cotton, and this was succeeded by maize, linseed, and other 
semi-tropical Abyssinian grains; and after another stiff 
climb up an execrable path we opened out on to the wheat 
and barley land.” 


217 


218 Agriculture & Industry 


I have myself seen blackberries and tropical palms grow- 
ing in close proximity, and in our own garden, where roses 
flowered from January to December, tuberose and violets, 
lilies and chrysanthemums, were growing in the same beds 
at the same time. And as to vegetables, I think that an 
English gardener’s envy will be roused when he hears that 
we laid out a kitchen yard in an uncultivated field in 
December, and in January we were eating some of the 
produce. 

The fertility of the soil is such that three and even in 
some places four crops are obtained by the natives, in spite 
of their extraordinarily primitive methods and appliances, 
and in spite of the long duration of the dry season and the 
pretty general absence of irrigation, practically the only 
form of which is the digging of trenches round the fields 
to carry off the heavy rains, and to retain a little moisture 
on into the dry season. Of course, the more far-seeing 
among them give the ground a rest from time to time, and 
if they own a fairly extensive acreage they even occasionally 
allow the ground to lie fallow for a year or more. 

The native implements of agriculture are still excessively 
primitive : they appear to have very few iron utensils. For 
digging they use long, pointed poles ; several natives, stand- 
ing in a row, force these into the earth, and then prize up 
a lump of sod which is afterwards broken up with a kind of 
short, two-pronged wooden fork. ‘The majority of their 
ploughs are also made of wood, but often, especially in the 
districts within reach of the railway line, the wooden point 
which enters the ground is covered with a piece of iron ; 
the result is that the surface of the earth is merely scratched. 

Even the native hatchets are often of wood, cut from the 
mimosa tree, and it is quite a common sight to see a woman 
hacking up her firewood with an all-wooden chopper. 

The method of gathering the crops and threshing is 
indeed primitive. The cutting is done by hand, of course, 
with knives or rough sickles—scythes are never used—and | 


Agriculture & Industry 219 


the corn is cut off quite near the top, close to the ears ; this 
is then generally made into quite good little stacks, or some- 
times is threshed at once. A smooth piece of ground is 
chosen, the corn piled upon it, and threshed by oxen tread- 
ing it round and round, after which it is thrown up into 
the air by hand, and the winds carrying away the chaff, the 
grain is left. 

In some districts—Arussi, for example—the grain is then 
stored in quaint egg-shaped mud huts about five or six feet 
high, raised from the ground on three or four wooden legs 
and thatched with grass ; here it remains until it is needed 
for local consumption, or until the travelling magadis come 
round to buy it, load it on to their mules, and take it into 
the towns or other districts to sell. 

Excluding coffee, to which reference is made elsewhere, 
the principal food-crops which are grown are, in the order 
of their importance, zeff (a kind of millet), barley, doura, 
chick-peas, maize, wheat, flax, pepper, and guecho. 

The first of these is by far the most important, as it is 
the basis of the principal food of the population—namely, 
their endjera or dabo. It is grown on most of the high 
ground in the country, and is found in two varieties, red 
and white. 

Barley is almost as important a crop, and it is grown in 
some of the low country as well as in the highlands ; it is 
used for the manufacture of talla, the native beer, and with 
grass is the universal foodstuff of ponies and mules. Doura 
is grown extensively in the low country and takes the 
place of teff. 

Chick-peas are fairly extensively cultivated and are much 
eaten, especially in the Gourage country; they are eaten 
raw or made up into a peppery compound, and are also used 
for horses and cattle, which appreciate them immensely. 
Maize is not grown very extensively. I believe it is found 
principally in the Harrar district. 

Wheat is not grown very much; of course, it is only 


220 Agriculture & Industry 


planted in the highlands, where it is found in three varieties 
—red, white, and yellow ; its consumption is mainly by the 
Europeans in the country, though a little is exported. Flax 
is used mainly as cattle food. 

Pepper, a very hot variety of chili, is immensely popular, 
and enters into the composition of nearly every cooked dish 
in the country, and is widely cultivated. 

Guecho is grown very generally ; the leaves are in great 
request for the fermentation of alla and tej, the national 
beverages, of which the consumption is considerable. It is 
a shrub which would appear to belong to the genus laurel. 

Possibly, however, the most general and most useful crop 
of all is grass. ‘This is a most valuable asset, and many of 
the population in the neighbourhood of Addis draw the 
bulk of their livelihood from it ; the grass market, with its 
hundreds of donkeys piled high with huge bundles of grass, 
is a really remarkable sight. Consequently it is not sur- 
prising that, whereas during the dry season it is possible to 
ride almost anywhere over the country, directly the rains 
commence fences and barriers spring up as if by magic, 
paths are barred, and many of one’s former short cuts are 
found to be “‘ closed to traffic.” And any attempt to ignore 
the newly formed landmarks is apt to be resented with 
stones and even rifles; riding over grass by Europeans 
ignorant or callous of native feeling on the subject has been 
the cause of several unpleasant incidents in recent times. 

It is a remarkable commentary on the way in which the 
opportunities of soil and climate are neglected that fruit 
and vegetables (especially the former) are hardly met with 
near the capital, except in private European gardens. I have 
never been able to obtain a satisfactory explanation of this, 
for it might well have been thought that these products, 
which grow easily and luxuriantly in so many parts of the 
country, would be cultivated near or brought into Addis 
Ababa; yet they are, with a few exceptions, almost un- 
procurable there apart from a few bananas and oranges 


Agriculture & Industry 221 


brought up from Harrar. The Galla in the district grow 
a sort of coarse-looking cabbage which reaches a height of 
from three to six feet, and which is uncommonly nasty ; 
potatoes, onions, and the ordinary cabbages are generally to 
be obtained in the market. 

A fair amount of pumpkins and gourds are grown round 
the twkuls outside the city. The pumpkin serves the native 
for several purposes ; the flesh makes good eating, the seed 
is dried and pounded and taken medicinally as a cure for 
internal parasites, and the rind is dried and used as a 
receptacle for butter, milk, etc. Needless to say, the 
gourd is used all over the country, and is found in all sizes 
and shapes, and a very useful article it is to the native for 
carrying water or any kind of liquid. 

The wild fig tree grows abundantly in many districts and 
reaches a tremendous size ; but the fruit is hardly fit to eat, 
though birds and monkeys seem to enjoy it thoroughly ; 
the specimens I tasted near Lake Zwai were very small and 
exceedingly nasty, being both dry and sour. 

The production of honey is quite an important factor, 
and is carried on fairly widely ; it is used mainly for the 
manufacture of tej. ‘he method of obtaining it is simple : 
The natives place high up in biggish trees long, cylindrical 
baskets about three or four feet long and a foot in diameter, 
containing a little honey, and in these the bees build their 
hives. The baskets are then pulled down, and the honey is 
squeezed into goat-skins in which it is carried long distances 
to market on the backs of donkeys. Needless to say, it re- 
quires boiling in order to remove the dirt before it can be 
eaten as honey, but after this has been done it is quite good. 

The wax is roughly compressed into large blocks and sold 
to the travelling nagadis, who bring it into Addis or other 
centres for refining by boiling; it contains about 10 to 30 
per cent impurity when brought in, and the price, of course, 
varies accordingly. 

But, although all the produce I have described is raised 


222 Agriculture & Industry 


in quantities sufficient for the immediate needs of the 
population, I do not think it an exaggeration to say that 
it is the minimum that could be produced. Far more could 
be raised per acre by the use of proper methods and imple- 
ments, very many more acres could be put under cultiva- 
tion, and a still greater variety of produce could be got out 
of the soil, given the necessary instruction and encourage- 
ment. 

I have so far referred only to foodstuffs. From an 
industrial point of view, the utilization of the possibilities 
of the country is still less advanced, and nearly everything 
remains to be done. 

I noticed in a recent Press statement that the Soudan 
Government, the Kassala Railway Company, and the 
Soudan Plantations Syndicate have in contemplation the 
extension of cotton growing in Kassala near the Abyssinian 
frontier, and that the railway is to be extended there ; it 
is therefore possible that the cotton possibilities of Abyssinia 
may at no distant date be brought more into the limelight. 

At a time when the world is being ransacked for suitable 
cotton-growing areas it is remarkable that the known and 
recognized possibilities of Abyssinia in this connection are 
not made use of. It isno new thing; the suitability of the 
country for cotton growing and the excellent quality of the 
cotton produced were pointed out by Dr. Beke, who 
travelled extensively in Abyssinia so long ago as 1842-3, 
and who later advocated before the Manchester Cotton 
Association the undertaking of cotton plantations there. 
Other travellers of different nationalities have at intervals 
since then repeatedly confirmed these views, and some 
samples which have been examined just recently by experts 
proved to be equal to good Egyptian. 

It is actually grown in many parts of the country and is 
used by the natives for the manufacture of beautiful finely 
woven chammas ; the Regent is so much interested in this — 
product that he has recently remitted the 10 per cent tithe. 


Agriculture & Industry 223 


Of course, the method of ginning, spinning, and weaving 
is very primitive: the seed is taken out by hand, the cotton 
is then “ flicked ” with a gut string stretched tightly across 
a wooden bow, by which means the cleansing is completed 
and the cotton fluffed out into a fine soft mass ready for 
spinning. It is spun backwards and forwards on to reels, 
and from these wound round and round posts placed in the 
ground twenty or thirty yards apart, from which it is once 
more wound off into skeins with the help of rough square 
frames: all this work is done by hand. 

Then it is ready for the weaver, who, sitting on the 
ground with his feet in a pit, produces really fine tissues 
with the help of his primitive hand-loom. Of course, the 
amount of time involved in these various processes is very 
great, consequently the products are more expensive than 
the imported sheetings, and the industry is on a small scale. 

In this it is typical of all other industries in the country, 
the condition of which is embryonic. For example, although 
oil seed (linseed, castor, sunflower, and others) is produced, 
the quantities made available have hitherto been so small 
comparatively as to preclude the possibility of creating an 
export trade of any dimensions in these commodities. And 
though the seeds are used locally to express oil, the methods 
in vogue are not such as to inspire enthusiasm. I was watch- 
ing some Abyssinians engaged on this work one day ; in the 
middle of a shed was a very large hollow tree-trunk about a 
yard high filled with oil seed, in which was resting a heavy 
log with a branch projecting from it at right angles. The 
projecting branch was heavily weighted with large stones 
and fastened to a camel, which with its eyes bandaged with 
plaited grass blinkers walked round and round the tree-trunk 
turning the log as it circulated, thus crushing the oil 
seed between the log and the hollow tree-trunk, so that a 
thin trickle of oil emerged from below. This was sold at a 
piastre a glass, and was highly recommended to me by the 
enthusiastic manufacturer as being excellent for cooking 


224 Agriculture & Industry 


purposes. I was invited to taste it from the filthiest glass — 
I have ever seen; but the combination of smells in the 
shed, the appearance of the oil, and the fact that the gentle- 
man who offered it to me had previously removed an insect 
of repulsive appearance from the glass with his fingers (he 
had just been fondling the camel) led me to decline. 

Apart from cotton production there is not much to be 
said for national industry. Basket weaving is carried on 
fairly widely, and very beautiful are some of these pro- 
ductions, woven by means of large pins with straw of 
many colours and varying thicknesses, sometimes so fine as 
to be almost like cloth in appearance. They are of many 
sizes, from a few inches to a couple of feet or even more; 
the larger sizes are used mainly as eating tables, on which 
the large flat, pancake-like loaves of teff bread are spread to 
receive the other viands. Other shapes and sizes are used 
for a variety of purposes, i.e. carrying small quantities of 
ght, pepper, salt, grain, etc. 

Roughly Baied pottery is also made from the clay which 
is found fairly freely ; they vary in size from huge gombos 
3 or 4 feet high, mainly used for carrying and keeping water, 
down to small bottles and tumblers; some of these are 
quaint and even picturesque in shape and ornamentation. 

Silversmiths’ work is also to be met with; the manu- 
facture of the highly ornamented trappings of mules and 
horses used for fantasias and on other gala occasions is fairly 
general, and so is the making of crosses, rings, earrings, and 
bracelets, head scratchers and ear cleaners, with which the 
ladies of the country bedeck themselves lavishly. These are 
mostly made of silver wire, very often gilt, worked in a 
filigree design and soldered on to silver plates which have 
been previously hammered out to the shape desired. The 
silver is obtained by melting down Abyssinian dollars, and 
the price of the articles is generally fixed at their weight in 
dollars plus a percentage for workmanship, frequently half 
as much again. 


*SoXOq JOYUTI} OF Sv[qe} Woy ossodaind 


jo pury AJoAS Joy posn ore AoY YT, “ssouauy jo SsodIs0p SUIAIVA 
ur ‘surd suoy Jo pre oy} YyyIM poqretd sMevrjs parmooo jo opr 


‘ONINVIL LaMSVG 


JuswIUIOpe feuosiod 

FO sofoljre Jo[[etUs Jo “ydersojyoyd oy} url UMaYs T[eIspeay S$ ,asIoy 
9Y} SB YONs *YIOM IOATIS [e]UOTILUIO JO AJOTILA v soonpoid urvur 
“S}JPI9 STY} “SMOT[oq UTYs}eVOS pure [lAue “rowUrey ‘sroduId STU UIA 


“MUOM LV HLINSUFATIS LUNOD AH] 


Agriculture & Industry 225 


Their outfit is simple—a hammer and anvil, a pair of 
pincers, a charcoal fire, and a goat-skin bellows seem to con- 
stitute the bulk of the necessary stock-in-trade ; and with 
this primitive equipment they certainly produce some very 
attractive things. My wife was given a really artistic 
bracelet made by an Abyssinian ; it was composed of gold 
wire strands and elephant hair woven together in a very 
pretty design, and the workmanship left nothing to be 
desired. 

Gold is found in the country, but has never been ex- 
ploited industrially. The French engineer Comboul, who 
was engaged in prospecting and survey work for four years 
during Menelik’s reign in Wallaga and Enarea, reported the 
discovery not only of alluvial gold which the Gallas had 
obtained from time immemorial by washing, but also of 
seams of auriferous quartz ; in his view “‘ Le Ouallaga n’est 
certainement pas inférieur au Transvaal.” ‘The same en- 
gineer also reported the existence of iron, copper, and nickel 
ores, and of two deposits of lignite. Stern stated that iron 
ore was found in many districts, and that the very primitive 
form of smelting utilized by the natives ‘“ produces never- 
theless a metal which established the superiority of the ore.” 

As is well known, indications of oil have been found in 
British Somaliland not far from the Abyssinian borders, and 
it is at least conceivable that this oil might derive from the 
Harrar foothills ; efforts have recently been made to verify 
this, with what success I have not heard. 

Salt has been exploited in the country for a considerable 
time, and is produced in small quantities, and lime is also 
found, but neither can be said to have been really properly 
worked at all. 

The presence of other minerals has been reported by 
prospectors from time to time as the result of spasmodic 
and unorganized research, but no comprehensive survey of 
the country on a systematic basis has ever been undertaken. 


1 Note at end of Chapter. 
P 


226 Agriculture & Industry 


The available information is inadequate to enable any very — 
definite pronouncement to be made as to the mineral possi- 
bilities of the country from an industrial point of view, 
but there is probably enough evidence to make it worth 
while to undertake the examination of such possibilities ; 
various concessions have been granted, but none of them is 
being exploited. 

There are no factories or workshop-industries of any kind 
in existence, if we except a few flour mills worked by water 
power, the only use to which this great national asset has 
been put. 


1 Since the above was written it has been reported that the Anglo- 
American Oil Company have taken up a concession for oil boring in 
Harrar for 50 years—work to start within 24 years. 


CHAPTER XX 
Communications, Travel & Trekking 


EW subjects in Abyssinia have caused such bitter 

controversy amongst the European powers con- 

cerned as the question of the communications of 

the country. And asa result they may be said to be 
practically non-existent with the exception of the 500 miles 
of railway from Djibouti to Addis Ababa. 

This railway, a French enterprise of which the original 
capital was largely British, is naturally the main artery of 
communication between Abyssinia and the outside world. 
Monopoly as it therefore is, great things might have been 
expected of it ; but unfortunately it has not fulfilled expec- 
tations. It has been a source of constant trouble to all 
concerned from its initiation, and up to the present has 
been run at a considerable loss annually at the expense of 
the taxpayers in France, in spite of the imposition of 
heavy and continually increasing charges.} 

I do not propose to go into the early history of this 
railway now; it is dealt with fully and accurately in 
Mr. T. Lennox Gilmour’s little book on the subject, 
published in 1906. At that time the railway had not got 
beyond Dirre-Daoua, 306 kilometres from the coast (go in 
French Somaliland and 216 in Abyssinia), which section 
had been building from 1897 to 1902. During the next 
seven years financial and political difficulties hampered 
further extension ; and it was not until the end of 1909 
that work started again, and of 1917 that the line was com- 
pleted to Addis, a further 460 kilometres—a total length of 


766 kilometres. 
1 Note at end of Chapter. 


227 


228 Travel & Trekking 


The political difficulties had been settled by the 1906 
Agreement between England, France, and Italy, which 
provided inter alia for the appointment of a British Director 
to the Board of the Franco-Ethiopian Railway. Unfor- 
tunately this appointment has not been made—a great pity, 
as much friction might be avoidedif this were done, especially 
if the British Director visited Abyssinia occasionally. 

It is to the interest of all those in any way concerned 
with Abyssinia that the railway should be a success, and 
the efforts of the nationals of all countries should be directed 
to assist the company to achieve this. In present circum- 
stances the railway does not by any means afford that help 
to development and expansion which is the raison d’étre of 
such an undertaking. 

Whether this be due to the fact that the railway was 
constructed more from political than from commercial 
considerations, and that its course was planned more with 
an eye to engineering difficulties than to trade possibilities 
(it runs for over a third of its length through unproductive 
country) ; or that it is badly managed and consequently 
too costly to pay; or that the other conditions in Abyssinia 
(described elsewhere) inimical to progress have equally 
affected it; or to a combination of all these causes, it is hard 
to say. But the fact remains. 

So long ago as 1902, when it had only just reached Dirre- 
Daoua, Lord Hindlip writes of the rolling stock: “The 
engines, however, were sadly in want of repair; during 
every journey nuts had to be tightened, and frequently 
when drawing heavy loads the engine would refuse an 
incline, and had to retire for another ‘ go.’”” ‘These words 
might have been written yesterday ; these very incidents 
(and others) happened during journeys that we ourselves 
made on the railway in 1919 and 1920. In many 
other respects also the rolling stock leaves much to be 
desired. 

I do not in any way wish to minimize the difficulties of the 


Travel & Trekking 229 


railway management; they have to carry on their work 
under conditions which are not exactly everyday features 
of such undertakings in Europe. Some of the tribes (Danakil 
and Somali) through whose territory the railway passes 
appear to be still under the impression that the rails, 
sleepers, and fishplates have been placed there mainly for 
the purpose of supplying them with materials for the 
manufacture of spear-heads, and telegraph-wire for the 
purpose of making copper bangles and other articles of 
personal adornment. 

This is apt to impede the traffic and to cause unexpected 
developments, to which breaks in the monotony of railway 
management may be added the periodical disappearance 
of portions of the “‘ permanent ”’ way during the rainy 
season. Consequently trains run only in the day-time. 

Even so, passengers occasionally enjoy (?) unrehearsed 
effects. On one occasion the line had given way on or 
immediately adjacent to the great Hawash bridge, and the 
unhappy travellers amid rain and mud had to clamber across 
a bridge never intended by its constructors for pedestrian 
trafic, and with their hearts in their mouths watch the 
swirling torrent below (incidentally plentifully supplied with 
crocodiles) whilst making their way to safety and another 
train on the other side. 

Whilst I was in the country a party of raiding Danakils 
descended on the line, cut down eight or ten kilometres of 
copper wire, loaded it on to a regular caravan of animals 
they had brought up for the purpose, and disappeared into 
space. A commission of investigation was despatched to 
look into the matter, and whilst pursuing their labours the 
Danakil (or some of their friends) returned, pulled up twenty 
or twenty-five iron telegraph poles and carted these little 
objects away, just to show how easily it could be done. 

Decrees have been issued thundering out denunciations 
of the crimes, threatening all sorts of penalties, and even 
menacing with imprisonment persons found wearing bangles 


230 Travel & Trekking 


of copper wire. But all in vain. So the railway company, 
whether in despair or to minimize temptation, replaced the 
copper by iron wire. Promptly arrived our friends the 
Danakil and proceeded to pull it down, but finding it was 
not made of copper and being no doubt justifiably annoyed 
at finding their supplies of raw material for ornamentation 
thus arbitrarily cut off, they signified their disgust by cut- 
ting up the inferior substitute into short lengths and leaving 
it lying there. 

These and other similar incidents do not make the working 
of the line an altogether simple matter, and the difficulties 
they have to contend with must be taken into account when 
criticizing the Company. But when due allowance has been 
made for the peculiar conditions under which they have to 
work, it is impossible altogether to acquit those in authority 
of blame for the many and obvious shortcomings of the 
line, and the troubles suffered by the users thereof. 

Of course journeys on the railway may be interesting and 
amusing—especially if someone of authority is on the 
train. When the Prince Regent went down the line recently 
the driver was instructed to stop whenever he saw any game, 
and after various fruitless stops at last a lion was sighted 
about forty yards from the track gazing at the train in mild 
interest. Amid great excitement the engine was pulled up 
and the Ras and the Europeans with him seized their rifles 
and prepared for the fray. But unfortunately one of the 
many soldiers on the train in the excitement of the moment 
loosed off his gun and the lion disappeared in the bush, 
followed by the royal party. They were however obliged 
to return minus the king of beasts, and the excitable soldier 
had leisure to regret his impetuosity during a period of 
imprisonment. 

Apart from the railway, caravans of mules and camels, 
donkeys and pack-ponies form the only means of transport 
if a very limited number of ox-wagons in the immediate 
vicinity of Addis be excepted; indeed, on one route at least 


ee 


Travel & Trekking (231 


human transport has to be resorted to. The reason for this 
is that the waterways are with a few small exceptions non- 
navigable, and there are no roads. 

The only river which can be said to be suitable for trans- 
port purposes is the Baro on the western frontier, and that 
only from Gambela downwards. It is about 100 miles from 
here to the frontier where the Baro joins the Sobat, the two 
together running into the Nile near ‘Taufikia. These rivers 
are generally navigable from about the middle of June to 
early in November as far up as Gambela; as far up as 
Nasser on the Abyssinian frontier they are navigable for a 
good deal longer. But the Baro has a very steep slope, its 
level varies rapidly and falls directly the rains cease, and 
then it quickly becomes too low to be of any practical use 
from the point of view of navigation. 

The caravans have to follow tracks winding tortuously 
through valleys and over mountains, and across rivers and 
streams, generally by fording. The rivers are bridged— 
sparsely—but such bridges as there are do not inspire confi- 
dence on close inspection; they seem to have been con- 
structed by optimists for optimists. 

And the Abyssinians themselves seem to share this view, 
for they have a habit of blocking them up by driving in 
posts, or by piling up huge heaps of brushwood at the 
approaches during the dry season, so as to compel travellers 
to use the fords, and thus presumably to prolong the life of 
the bridge. 

Fording rivers is pleasant and amusing enough as long 
as they are not too deep, and crocodiles not too conspicuous, 
even though the ponies stu ble and slip among the big 
stones in the river-bed and threaten their riders with a duck- 
ing, and the pack-mules manifest a sudden desire to stop in 
mid-stream and have a cooling roll. But crossing the same 
rivers in the rains is by no means a simple proposition ; for 
example, the navigation of the Abai at these times is per- 
formed by the aid of a raft of ox-hides stuffed with grass and 


232 Travel & Trekking 


with one’s personal belongings, which floats quite well and 
so buoys up the traveller across the torrent: a method 
similar to that in which the crossing of the Euphrates used to 
be effected in the time of Herodotus. 

All journeys have to be done by trekking, and provided 
the traveller is not in a hurry no more delightful method of 
moving about can be imagined. So whether it be a business 
or a shooting trip or merely a holiday jaunt for rest and 
change, you map out your route, prepare your caravan and 
disappear, not to be heard of again until some time after the 
appointed day of return, for things do not work out to time 
there as a rule. 

Trekking in the wilds is popularly supposed to be an 
_ arduous and uncomfortable form of procedure, full of risks 
and hardships, and an enterprise only to be undertaken by 
the hardy pioneer. And though it may be so in (for 
example) waterless country or through desert, yet in most 
cases there is no reason why one should not be more com- 
fortable on trek in Abyssinia than in a house in Europe. 

Given the proper equipment, the right sort of tent, 
comfortable beds and chairs, an ample supply of the things 
you want and rigorous rejection of the unnecessary para- 


phernalia that makes travelling a burden, and I feel sure — 


that the people whose ideas of trekking are gathered, for 
example, from the miseries of “camping out” by the 
Thames in England, would never wish to return to civilized 
modes of travel. 

The delightful freedom of the life, the early morning 
feeling of freshness and vitality as one wakes soon after 
dawn after a night in the open air, the day’s ride through 
beautiful and ever-changing scenery, now winding along a 
rocky mountain pass looking down hundreds of feet on a 
panorama of forest and plain stretching for miles around, 
now dipping down into a valley or crossing a lazily moving 
river: and all the while birds, butterflies, flowers, and trees, 
dazzling and delighting the eye. Then the evening camp, 


ee 


Travel & Trekking 232 


the twinkling fires, the merry chattering servants, the last 
visit to the ponies before turning in—and you drop off to 
well-earned sleep in the almost audible silence of the African 
bush, broken only perhaps by the cry of a nightbird or the 
yap of a jackal. Of course you will strike snags in the course 
of your treks, and all is not always couleur de rose. For 
example, the caravan has a little way of missing the camping 
ground, or of arriving late—sometimes the cook who ought to 
be the first man “‘ home” goes astray and turns up just when 
you are resigning yourself to a dinner of cold tinned stuff. 
Or if it is in the rainy season a storm may develop as the 
tents are going up, with delightfully unexpected results. Or 
just when settled for the night the ponies may stampede, or 
a hyena may get at a mule, and the camp wakes with much 
yelling and cursing, to the detriment of one’s beauty sleep. 

We had a pretty good example of the last-named trouble 
on our last trek. An ox had been skinned and cut up 
rather too near the camp, and the smell of blood and of the 
joints of raw meat hanging in the trees had attracted a 
number of jackals and hyenas to the neighbourhood at a 
very early hour of the evening. Soon after six the long low 
bodies of the jackals had been slinking round calling with 
their melancholy howls their friends the hyenas, and then 
these ungainly brutes with their curious lopsided trot had 
appeared from many directions, until at about eight o’clock 
literally dozens of them must have been around us. Shrieks 
of demoniacal laughter made the night hideous as they 
fought over the scraps lying about, varied by lugubrious 
howls and wails to the accompaniment of which we retired 
to sleep. Large fires had been built, a guard stationed, and 
the ponies and mules strongly piqueted by ropes fastened 
to pegs driven into the ground. But in spite of all our 
precautions at about one o’clock the ravening beasts burst 
right into the camp, the terrified ponies and mules broke 
their ropes, and with a thunder of hoofs fled in every direc- 
tion. They fell over the guy ropes of the tent and nearly 


234 Travel & Trekking 


brought it down, our men added to their terror by shooting 
wildly at the hyenas and yelling at the tops of their voices, 
and by the time I had got outside my tent the camp was 
empty save for a couple of men left to guard the remains of 
the meat. All that night and the next day parties of men 
came dribbling back, mostly with their feet full of thorns, 
and by the evening we could reckon up our losses—five mules 
and two ponies irretrievably lost, half a dozen men too 
lame to walk, the rest of the party weary, sulky, and 
thoroughly out of conceit with themselves. But fortunately 
that sort of thing does not often happen, and anyway, these 
little misadventures taken in the right spirit serve to prevent 
monotony. 

A bush fire is about the most unpleasant thing to meet 
when on trek, especially if the traveller happens to be on the 
wrong side of it. I know few more awe-inspiring sights than 
this, and on the few occasions I haveseen it, it has seemed to 
represent to me hell materialized. A great sheet of fire 
stretching perhaps for miles, huge pillars of flame shooting 
up round the large trees, dense volumes of smoke, the 
crackling of the blaze, the tremendous heat of the fire, the 
suffocation of the smoke; the terrified wild animals flying 
headlong before it, forgetting their everyday feuds in their 
common terror of their mighty and devastating foe—all 
this makes up a spectacle of grandeur that is hard to rival, 
but which is more pleasant if less thrilling to witness with 
the wind behind one—as fortunately occurred to us on our 
last trek. 

There is another somewhat disconcerting element of 
trekking in Abyssinia, and that is the complete ignorance 
of either time or direction on the part of one’s so-called © 
“ guides.”? Of course the traveller may be lucky enough 
to find a man who really does know the part of the country 
he wishes to visit, but I have generally found (and I notice 
other travellers have said the same thing) that although at 
the beginning of the trek the guide knows all about it, it does 


A MINOR CHIEF OF THE ARUSSI GALLA. 


A typical specimen of this fine-looking pagan race, east of Lake Zwai. 


THE REED CANOES OF LAKE ZWAI. 


Floating in (not om) the water this craft is made of reeds lashed together, the thin ends forming the 
bow and the thick the stern. It accommodates the fisherman, his nets, paddle, and his ‘‘ catch.”’ 


Travel & Trekking 235 


not take very long to find out that he has either never been to 
the district at all, or perhaps only ten or fifteen years ago. 
When we were going to Zwai we were making for the north- 
east top corner of the Lake—we actually struck it near the 
southern extremity ! 

It was a really beautiful spectacle when we did get there— 
we had caught glimpses of it for some time lying many 
hundreds of feet below us like a bright blue jewel set in a 
circle of dark green forest, all framed in a great ring of 
savage-looking dust brown mountains. We had for some 
days been trekking through wonderful country, dropping 
through great gorges and chasms in the rocks amid thick 
mimosa forest and quantities of thefuturist-looking euphorbia 
trees, crossing dried-up river-beds densely covered with 
vegetation of every kind and colour, scrambling across 
streams the beds of which, composed of large boulders, made 
us tremble for our ponies’ legs, crossing a river at a ford 
were the water lapped up on to the saddles, and finally 
struggling through a pass up a track where the mules had 
to be unloaded, their packs man-handled to the top, and 
the poor beasts hoisted up by main force. 

And then on Christmas Eve we came to the lake and— 
strange coincidence—found mistletoe growing on some 
trees near by. That was the only thing to remind us of the 
season, for the blazing sun, the bright blue sky, the green 
vegetation and the thousands of birds of every size and 
shape and colour on the lake were about as unlike an English 
December as anything could well be. 

As is the case with so many places in Abyssinia, Zwai is 
rich in tradition. It was supposed to have been originally 
dry land, an area some fifty miles in diameter divided 
amongst seven chiefs. ‘Then in a single night it was sub- 
merged to the accompaniment of terrific rumblings and 
upheavals, and in the morning where there had been land 
there was now a lake in the midst of which floated five 
islands. One of these islands is in fact used to-day as a sort 


236 Travel & Trekking 


of State prison; there isa monastery on it in which all sorts — 


of valuables and literary treasures were supposed to have 
been stored for safety when Gran invaded that part of the 
country. King Sehala Salassie sent a man there to see what 
could be found, but he reported that there was nothing 
but manuscripts, and when Menelik investigated the place 
himself he did not find anything of great interest even 
among the manuscripts. 

Trekking in Abyssinia, as anywhere else in Africa, may be 
comfortable or uncomfortable according to the traveller’s 
experience and resources. But, as I have said above, 
given the proper equipment (and knowledge) nothing 
could be more delightful. ‘There are, however, certain 
peculiarities attaching to this form of travel in Abyssinia 
of which the traveller should be aware if he wishes to avoid 
trouble or inconvenience. 

In the first place, it is necessary to have a permit from the 
central authority, specifying the number of persons, horses, 
mules, rifles, and revolvers in the party; this is easily 
obtained and costs only about $15. (The dollar is now 
equivalent roughly to 2s.). 

Then it is usual (unless the trek is to be a very long one 
extending over many months) to engage a nagadi, or master 
muleteer, who provides all the mules and mule drivers at 
an inclusive charge of $$ per pack mule per day when on the 
move and $i whenincamp. This avoids a lot of trouble, as 
the nagadi is responsible for finding, feeding, loading, and 
unloading the mules, and as they are his property he will 
take more care of them than if they belonged to the traveller. 
On our last trip we had about twenty-two pack animals. 

It is, however, well to examine the mules a few days 
before starting, and to reject any with sore backs—a detail 
which does not trouble the Abyssinian. Apart from the 
horrible cruelty of loading beasts in that condition, it will 
mean delay and trouble en route, ending probably with a 
shortage of serviceable animals. 


ee ee ee ee 


ee Oe eee eee ee ee ee 


a _ 


Travel & Trekking aba 


When the poor beast gets too sore they “ fire” it; the 
mule is thrown down and a hot iron laid on the flesh near the 
sore. It sounds barbarous, but strange to say it is remarkably 
effective, and I have seen this done, the animal get up, eat a 
sort of bran mash, trot off to graze, and be fit for work in a 
couple of days. 

This soreness is no doubt due frequently to the primitive 
nature of the pack saddle, and the curious way of fastening 
on the loads. ‘The saddle has no girth, it is merely laid on 
the mule’s back, the load divided into two nearly equal 
weights laid across it, and the whole then fastened on by 
leather lashings which are ingeniously brought round 
under the animal’s belly and fastened over the top of 
the load. 

It is remarkable how effective this method of saddling is— 
and it needs to be. For commend me to an Abyssinian 
mule as being a concentrated essence of almost devilish 
ingenuity in ridding himself of his load if for some reason 
he thinks there is a chance of being successful in his efforts. 
He will suddenly charge a tree so that one side of the pack 
hits the trunk fair and square, and with any luck and a few 
subsequent bucks off it comes. Or he will run under a low- 
lying branch of a nice prickly mimosa so that the limb of the 
tree just misses his head and catches the load, with alarming 
results to the position and condition of the load, the mule- 
teer’s efforts to put matters right being considerably ham- 
pered by the two-inch thorns of the mimosa, no doubt 
carefully selected by the mule for that purpose. But the 
nagadi is pretty good as a rule in coping with his animals’ 
eccentricities—the pair are fairly matched. 

In addition to the nagadi and his men it is necessary to 
have a number of zabanias or soldier-guards. These men 
guard the camp at night in pairs, help with the loading and 
and unloading, put up and take down the tents, and act 
as general utility men. And finally there is the usual 
complement of personal servants, such as personal boy, cook, 


238 Travel & Trekking 


cook’s boy, and grooms, and generally a good head-man or 
caravan leader. q 

The following will give an idea of the necessary outfit for 
two persons for a tata or two’s trek :— 1 


Head-man . : ; $20 to $40 per month. 
2 Personal boys 6 IO) . $20 5 
Cook . ° . $20 ” ”» 
Cook’s boy . $8 gy ns 
2 saises (grooms) ($8) . SIG iyi 
6 Zabanias ($10) . : $60: (Nes 
Nagadi (including men 

and pack mules) say S27 Sih ss 


Total wages of sa fart, 


SAY. Maes $440 or about £44) 


It is usual to ride when on trek, and personally J infinitely 
prefer ponies, though many people prefer mules. But the 
mule though surefooted is a dull animal as a rule, and when 
he isn’t dull he is often vicious ; moreover, the Abyssinian 
pony is just as surefooted. ‘The men all walk with the 
exception of the caravan leader, the cook and the principal 
personal boy, who are usually given mules to ride (provided 
by the nagadi), as they are expected to get into camp early 
and have everything for the master. 4 

Other expenses include allowances to all the safari of $1_ 
each for sandals, $2 each for a blanket, and $3 each a month 
for food ; and it is a good thing to give the men occasionally 
an ox or a couple of sheep for food en route; as the former 
beasts costs from $6 to $12 and the latter $1 to $1} the 
expense is not great. | 

The whole cost of a trip of this kind for two persons / 
worked out in our case at about $600 per month (roughly, 
£60). This of course does not include the cost of camp j 
equipment—tent, beds, mattresses, blankets, chairs, tables, 


Travel & Trekking 239 


mosquito nets, mule trunks, water bottles, food basket, 
cookbox, etc. 

As regards equipment I would only say that I have always 
found the ant-proof and water-proof green Willesden canvas 
double tents best for hard wear ; they should be fitted with 
plenty of pockets round the inside in which to put clothing 
and odds and ends, and a window at either end covered with 
mosquito netting. Iron tent pegs are essential. The ground 
sheet should be attached to the sides and should be large 
enough to have a good overlap (six inches to a foot) in the 
middle when down ; this makes an enormous difference to 
the dryness and cleanliness of the tent, and the general 
comfort and warmth at night. We found the chairs and 
beds of the Roorkee pattern the most practical, for as the 
parts are made entirely of wood any of them breaking 
or getting out of order can be easily replaced. 

It is useless to save the expense of a few pounds in 
endeavouring to lessen the luggage, and by so doing leave 
the necessities of comfort behind ; and it is unwise to rely 
in this country solely upon what may be picked up in the 
way of food or even meat. 

It is often possible to get milk and eggs, but these can by 
no means be relied on everywhere; for example, some of the 
Arussi Gallas to the south-west of Zwai we found very 
reluctant to supply us with anything, and we were loth to 
press the chiefs though we were armed with all sorts of 
authorities for doing so. For the objectionable custom of 
dergo is one against which travellers should in my view 
resolutely set their faces. As I mentioned in an earlier 
chapter, troops on the march, and travellers whom the Cen- 
tral Government may wish to honour, are entitled to receive 
dergo from the countries through which they are passing, in 
other words the chiefs send in provisions—eggs, milk, bread, 
honey, sheep, goats, or even cattle—collected from the 
wretched peasants. It is perfectly useless for the traveller 
to try to salve his conscience by paying the chief: the money 


of preserves with the caravan such as tinned fruit, milk, jam, 
sardines, biscuits, etc. ‘They are invaluable to fall back or 
in times of shortage, or to supplement the produce of one’s 
gun, for, as a well-known traveller said to me once, luxuries 
are much more important than necessaries in the way of food 
on trek. 

And finally, it has to be remembered that though the 
days are pleasantly hot the nights are bitterly cold in the 
mountains of Abyssinia, so that half a dozen blankets apiece. 
(half above and half underneath) will by no means be des- 
pised towards one or two c’clock in the morning when the 
night chill seems at its worst. : 


1 Since writing the above it has been reported that the railway has 
made a net profit of 367,602 francs for the year 1922—the first year of the 
operation of a new financial arrangement between the Company and the 
French Government. Improvements in railway organisation are also 
announced, 


CHAPTER .XXI 
Animal Life 


UST as almost every kind of produce that the earth 

can render is to be found in Abyssinia, so is it possible 

in the various districts of the country to find an 

immense variety of animal life. To do justice to such a 
subject would require much time and travel and a book to 
itself ; it is much to be hoped that a work of this kind will 
be undertaken, for it would be of great interest, and little 
literature bearing on the subject exists. One or two natural- 
ists have made expeditions into the country, such as that of 
Ruppell in 1831-3 and of Erlanger in more modern times; 
but the published results of their works are far from 
being comprehensive or up to date. 

Elephant, lion, leopard, serval, civet, wild cat, antelope of 
many kinds, giraffe, zebra, ostrich, hippopotamus, rhino- 
ceros, crocodile, otter, hyena, jackal, wild dog, hare, wild 
pig, monkeys of many species, birds innumerable, butterflies 
of wonderful colouring, snakes, fish, insects, are all to be 
met with to a greater or less extent in one part or another, 
and amongst them are found species which do not exist 
elsewhere. 

Unfortunately it is improbable that this state of affairs 
will long endure, for the Abyssinians are “ mighty hunters 
before the Lord,” and as game laws are to all intents and 
purposes non-existent, game is decreasing rapidly, and is 
being driven further and further into the more inaccessible 
parts of the country since the population have become 
possessed of rifles. This applies specially to elephant and 


Q 241 


242 Animal Life 


lion; even before rifles were introduced the Abyssinians _ 
hunted these animals with spears, and it is a mark of even © 
greater distinction among them to have killed one of these 
than to have killed a man. Over two thousand years ago 
Ptolemy feared that the supply of elephants from his 
hunting grounds along the Abyssinian coast would fail, and 
offered the Trogodyte savages rewards to refrain from — 
hunting them, apparently unavailingly. i 

But they still exist, as do lions, and it is to be hoped that — 
measures may be taken to stop their extermination before — 
it is too late. 

Leopards are still plentiful, they even penetrate into — 
Addis Ababa itself, or at any rate did so a couple of years _ 
ago. One of them had made his headquarters in a room at — 
the Russian Legation (which had been shut up for some time © 
before we took it), and when the door was opened the © 
animal’s presence was made evident in no uncertain manner ; _ 
he got away into the bush but left bones and other traces — 
behind him—a leopard’s lair is not the sweetest-smelling — 
place in existence. A little later two more were killed in the — 
grounds of the Italian Legation ; one of them made himself — 
particularly offensive by carrying off sheep destined for the 
larder, and dogs from the very verandah of the Legation. 

The black leopard is a beautiful creature, and its skin © 
seems rare and little known in Europe ; it is very’scarce, and - 
is, I believe, found mainly in the Djimma and Magi districts. © 
I do not think it is a different species of the race, but more i 
probably an example of atavism, as I am told that a black — 
cub is found in a litter of ordinarily marked animals; the 
colour of the skin is dark brown, almost black, and the ~ 
leopard markings show faintly through the dark colour. 

Antelope of every kind abounds from the Greater Kudu — 
to the tiny dik-dik, but in the case of the larger of these 
animals it is again unfortunate to have to record that their _ 
numbers are diminishing sadly. ‘The little dik-dik is a — 
delightful creature weighing only a few pounds, and quite 


Animal Life 24.3 


tame and friendly after he has been kept for a little while. 
Some friends of ours had one which used to wander about 
on the dinner-table eating the flowers out of the vases ; he 
was, | remember, particularly fond of carnations. This 
trait is less attractive when the animals are in a wild state, 


_ for then their inroads into the gardens and their predilec- 
_ tion for the young shoots are apt to be exceedingly irritating, 


especially as their appetite seems to be unlimited. 

The most remarkable species of Abyssinian antelope is the 
nyala, otherwise known as the Buxton Kudu, which is 
exceedingly rare, and is, I believe, only met with outside 
Abyssinia in one or two districts of south-east Africa. They 
are found, when at all, in the Arussi country, and people 
have spent months fruitlessly looking for them. While we 
were in Addis a well-known sportsman, Major de Laessoe, had 
a remarkable experience with nyala ; although only able to 


_ devote three weeks to a trek for shooting purposes, ham- 
_ pered by the defective sighting of his rifle which threw 


eighteen inches to the left, and with a cartridge jambed in 


one barrel, he was fortunate enough (with one other gun, 
_ Mr. Adams) to secure three specimens of this very rare 
beast. 


Hippopotamus is found fairly extensively in the big lakes 


north and south (Tsana and Zwai, for example), and in the 
rivers ; they are hunted for their skins, which are used for 
shields. The rhinoceros is met with more rarely; the 
_ Abyssinians used to hunt this latter animal with spears, and 
I cannot forbear quoting a delightful story of one of these 
hunts told me by the ruler of a large territory in the north. 
He had rounded up a fine old rhinoceros and had attacked it 


in the historical method with his spears, four of which had 
failed to bring the animal to earth. As the rhino was then 
too near for him to have time to use his rifle (which he 
apparently carried ex abundante cautela), he lay down in the 
long grass and the rhino sniffed all round him and, not 
seeing him, departed. Up jumped the sportsman and shot 


24.4. Animal Life 


him in the eye as he was leaving—the animal’s eye must have 
been curiously situated, by the way. The rhino fell, and my 
friend seated himself on the apparently dead body and 
began to intone a song of triumph, a little previously as it 
appeared. For the beast was not dead, and, galvanized into 
life no doubt by the dreadful discords proceeding from 
above him, he staggered to his feet and cantered off with — 

his assailant on his back. It was, however, his “‘swan song,” 
if I may so mix my metaphors; and after a short gallop he 
fell to rise no more, really dead this time. May I add that 
I do not vouch for the accuracy of this story. 

Monkeys of very many different species abound, from 
the large baboon down to tiny creatures smaller than a 
squirrel, and very impudent some of them were. We were 
resting one day under a big fig tree waiting for our safari 
which had gone astray, lazily watching the animal life all 
around us when a half-eaten fig fell on my arm. Another 
and yet others fell on us, so I looked up carefully and saw 
amid the branches a number of little white whiskered totas 
apparently quite annoyed at our invasion of their privacy ; 
to mark their displeasure they were throwing the fruit at us 
with quite a good aim, and it was most amusing to watch 
the way in which after each shot the little creatures peered 
down through the branches to see the effect of their attack. 

The manceuvres of the baboons were always interesting, 


though it was difficult to get near them. A party of about ~ 


thirty or forty crossed the river just by our camp one day, 
and it was quite instructive to watch their modus operandi ; 
apparently they had been disturbed at their feeding grounds 
and so, barking and growling, they were en route to pastures 
new. ‘The advance guard came down to the water’s edge, 
peered through the bush, and then giving an “ all clear” 
signal, bounded from rock to rock across the river above the 
falls, followed in single file by the whole party until the 
rear-guard only, consisting of a savage-looking old gentleman, 
remained on the other side. Very deliberately and turning 


x : 
ety 
= + , 


- 


Animal Life 24.5 


round from time to time to bark his disapproval at whatever 
it was that had disturbed him, he followed the troop, and 
with a final look round, and what sounded suspiciously like a 
parting curse, he also disappeared in the bush close to us, 
where we were silently watching. Of course our cameras 
had been left behind. 

On another occasion we managed to get quite close to a 
large troop of baboons in an endeavour to get some pictures 
of them, my wife riding round to head them off whilst I 
crawled through the grass towards them. Unfortunately 
we could not approach quite near enough; there were 
“women and children” with the party, and they slipped 
between us down a very steep ravine, through which we 
followed in a vain attempt to catch them up. ‘Two old 
warriors brought up the rear, and whenever I lifted my 
camera (which they took for a rifle, I suppose) down went all 
their heads behind rocks or trees, and there was nothing 
visible ; as soon as I dropped the camera up they came again, 
obviously jeering at my clumsy efforts. It was very trying. 

The most beautiful variety of monkey found in Abyssinia 
is, I think, the Goreza, a handsome creature standing about 
two feet high, with coal black hair, a large white bushy 
mane stretching all down the back, and a bushy white tail ; 
it is a pretty sight to see a troop of these creatures passing 
almost like a flight of birds through the tops of trees far 
above one’s head. 

As for birds, words fail me to describe the exquisite beauty 
of the infinite variety of these creatures ; every colour and 
combination of colours in nature’s palette, every shape 
_ which she has seemed able to devise, are there to delight the 
eye. I shall not easily forget our passage through some 
marshy ground early one morning shortly after breaking 
camp; we had left vultures, hawks, and carrion crows 
_ disputing over the fragments near the cook’s tent when we 
_ came on the most remarkable collection of birds I have ever 
_ seen together in so short a space of time. A flight of wild 


24.6 Animal Life 


duck passed overhead, and then in the swamps before us 
appeared quantities of snipe; a parrot decked in all the 
colours of the rainbow was sitting on a low bush watching 
us with interest but without fear as we passed, and other 
members of his genus were brightening the neighbouring 
trees and evidently asking him what he thought of us ; blue, 
green, and yellow birds flew past us and over us, and then 
we came upon some large storks with black and white striped 
wings breakfasting in the marshes, round each of which 
was fluttering a tiny bird with blood-red plumage shrilly 
warning his bigger friend of the approach of the strange- 
looking animals. Some fifteen or twenty guinea fowl ran 


along ahead of us as if suggesting that luncheon would be © 


wanted some time, and that a bird in the hand was worth 
consideration ; and quaint long-legged little white birds got 


up at our approach only to settle down immediately we had 


passed to a resumption of their interrupted meal. 

It was difficult to drag oneself from this natural aviary, and 
a little further on we were glad enough to seize the excuse of 
the route having been lost (a daily occurrence) to sit down 
and watch our feathered friends. Some of them seemed as 
interested in us as we were in them, and an exquisite grey 
creature, about the size of a thrush, with black and white 


markings, hopped nearer and nearer to us as we sat, calling | 


to his mates to come and look at these weird beings, until 
at least eight or ten were perched on bushes within a few 
feet of us chattering vigorously, and showing no sign 
whatever of fear or timidity. 

Further south on Zwai we saw again a lovely collection of 


birds, pelicans in hundreds dotted the lake like patches of | 


snow; pale pink flamingoes, propped on their long stilts, 


fished away unconcernedly; while geese and duck of all 


kinds, large and small, bright coloured and black, seemed 
literally to invite one to lay the table for supper. 


There was one epecially gorgeous little creature that used — 
to hop quite fearlessly around us, and he was so lovely that I 


Animal Life | 247 


made a note of his markings at the time. The head was a 
darkish royal blue, paling towards the neck, round which 
was a pure white band ; the back was blue shading to green 
along the sides and ends of the wings ; the long tail dark blue 
above and pure white below; the breast and body brilliant 
orange, and the under side of the wings pale grey. Can 
anything more exquisite be imagined ? 

It was, however, merely a question of degree—everywhere 
these gorgeous examples of nature’s handiwork were to be 
found; even in Addis itself our garden was full of them. 
Two funny brown hammerheads had built themselves there 
an. enormous nest some six feet in length in a tree almost 
touching the house, and they with their two youngsters used 
to play great games, volplaning off the opposite roof and 
sweeping up into one of the various entrances of their three- 
tiered home ; the tiny little brilliant-hued long-tailed honey 
birds, so small that they could perch on a petal of the glad- 
ioli while draining the flower of its sweetness ; or the bril- 
liant blue-green iridescent thrush coming both “‘ as a single 
spy and in battalions ’’—all these and many others used to 
fill the place with brightness. 

The birds of prey were less attractive, their thieving 
propensities marked, and their impudence and daring 
extraordinary ; I supposed they realized they were not fit 
to eat, and were worthless from any other point of view, 
and so felt no fear of coming to an untimely end. 

It was always a source of amazement to me how the 
vultures would appear from nowhere, dropping literally 
like manna from heaven, directly an animal fell to one’s 
gun, or even when an ox or sheep was slaughtered for food. 
Not a bird would be in sight, and then suddenly one and 
then another would drop down noiselessly a few yards off, 
until a ring of the horrible bare-necked ghouls would be 
perched all around with their eyes fixed on the prospective 
banquet. And what a revolting scene when they could get 
at it—tearing with their strong beaks and their evil claws, 


248 Animal Life 


beating with their wings, bustling and hustling each other, 
a mass of ugly untidy-looking brown and grey plumage, and 
nasty bare necks, showing an inch or two of dirty white 
flesh. 

Hawks, of which there are, I was told, more different — 
species than anywhere else in the world, and crows, join 
in these feasts, and the latter even hunt in combination. An 
instance of this was given me on good authority. Looking 
out of the window of the train while stopping at a wayside 
station, my informant saw a flock of crows circling above a 
hare which they were actually coursing ; as the poor beast 
doubled to right or left the crows twisted and turned above 
it until at last one bird detached itself from the rest and 
swooping down with a vicious peck at the head rolled it 
over dead. I am glad to say they were cheated of their 
meal however, for my friend who had witnessed the scene 
sent his boy to bring in the spoils of the chase. | 

Ostriches are found in thesouth, and anostrichfarmisrun ~ 
by two Germans in the neighbourhood of Zwai on a small 
scale; there were over a hundred birds when we passed 
through, and the handsome black and white males with their 
more sober looking grey female companions seemed quite 
contented in their large enclosures fenced in with euphorbia. 
We happened to witness one of the males courting a female © 
bird, and a more ridiculous sight is hard to imagine; the 
ungainly great animal danced about, swaying his body, 
waving his long neck, and taking up the most absurd pos- 
tures before his inamorata, who with her head on one side 
seemed to regard the dancing dervish in front of her as 
though he were demented, as indeed he seemed to be—our 
fits of laughter unfortunately broke off the touching scene 
just before it reached the climax. He is I believe quite a 
devoted parent when it comes to hatching out the eggs, 
and takes his turn of sitting on the nest; generally his turn 
is by night, probably because the grey female is less con- 
spicuous in the day-time, and with that wonderful instinct 


Animal Life 24.9 


for camouflaging themselves against suitable backgrounds 
possessed by all wild animals, they arrange their periods of 
duty so as to involve the least danger to their offspring. I 
believe also that this instinct is to some extent responsible 
for the performance described as hiding its head in the sand 
when in danger ; the bird knows that his long neck is apt to 
betray him to his enemies, and so lays it along the ground 
in an effort to avoid attracting attention. 

It is curious that they do not suffer more from the attacks 
of hyenas, but I was told that none had been lost in this way 
at the farm, though the euphorbia fence would offer no 
impediment to the ingress of these disgusting brutes, who 
abound in the neighbourhood and indeed all over the 
country. They seem particularly attracted by mules and 
ponies, and I have seen some really awful wounds inflicted 
on these unfortunate animals by their powerful jaws, jaws 
which can crunch bones that a lion could not ; it is fortu- 
mate that they are such cowardly creatures, but even so, 
two or three of them together would if hungry undoubtedly 
attack an unarmed man at night, and the natives knowing 
this will rarely go about after dark alone or without weapons 
of some kind. 

They would hardly seem to be suitable creatures of which 
to make pets, and yet some friends of ours at Addis kept one 
running loose about the grounds and even in the drawing- 
room, until their children arrived from Europe when they 
thought it better to get rid of their four-footed guest. His 
place was, however, well filled by a quaint marabout bird who 
always seemed wrapped in thought, and generally stood like 
a sentry near the tennis-court as if he were trying to master 
the intricacies of the game ; an extremely savage lynx which 
had to be kept behind wire; several monkeys, some tor- 
toises, and a few other creatures, all of whom (save the lynx) 
seemed to get on very well together. 

Porcupines run to quite big dimensions; one that was 
brought alive into camp one day had to be carried in a sort 


250 Animal Life \ 


of wicker cage by two men who had caught it for us in 
response to our request for a tortoise—they assured us that — 


do just as well, quite in the best manner of London shop — 
assistants endeavouring to palm off on a credulous customer _ 
something he doesn’t want in place of something they — 
haven’t got. i ; 

Insects it is hardly necessary to say abound, from locusts — 
which there, as elsewhere, are a terrible plague when they do _ 


it th 1 
happen to descend on the country, to the homely kuncha, or iq 


course. ‘This was brought home to us in a number of ways, Hi 
many of them painful, some otherwise as the rallonael 
example illustrates. My wife had given a ‘“‘ book tea” in ~ 
Addis one day, which, like all other functions there was 
attended by all the European community, and the competi- _ 
tion for the prizes was keen and strenuous. By universal 
consent, however, the blue ribbon was given to a visitor 
from one of the Legations, who arrived with a card in his © 
buttonhole to which was fastened a fine fat flea (defunct) © 
—the book thus represented being “‘ Our Mutual Friend.” 

White ants are a great nuisance ; their insatiable appetite _ 
for everything except iron and green Willesden canvas — 
makes them a real plague in the houses, where they get into © 
the furniture and woodwork, work their way up between the _ 
stonework and the wood or paper covering, and are only © 
discovered when this falls down. f 

At one season of the year these insects develop four large 
wings, rather like those of the dragon-fly ; they appear — 
towards sunset after a stormy day, coming up out of the © 
ground in thousands and millions, until the air is thick — 
with them; they fly about for a short while, drop to the 4 
ground, shed their wings and crawl away again, their short — 
flight towards the sun reminding one of the ambitious effort i 
of our late unfortunate friend Icarus. § | 

On these occasions my wife’s pet monkey Adelina—so 


Animal Life 251 


called because of her piercing scream—used to have a great 
feast; with both hands she picked them up or caught 
them flying, sometimes two or three at a time, and stuffed 
them into her mouth as fast as she could, not forgetting to 
eject the wings ; she must have eaten hundreds, and always 
seemed ready for more. 

Apart from white ants and fleas, however, and of course the 
ubiquitous house fly, I do not think that one is as much 
pestered by insects there as in the country-side in England— 
if we except our friend the mosquito, who makes life a little 
wearisome in the low country. But at Addis we were quite 
untroubled by insect life, whether in the dry season or the 
rains. 

Abyssinia is rich in cattle and well provided with domestic 
animals ; as I have already mentioned the herds of cattle run 
into many millions, and the opportunities thus offered are 
incalculable. Of course many prejudices would have to be 
overcome, and much spadework carried out before the 
country could hope to rival Argentine or New Zealand or 
even Paraguay; but the raw material is there in quantities, 
and under conditions which are probably unrivalled. Up 
till now little or nothing has been done; in parts of the 
country the native prefers his cattle to his dollars, and 
will not sell; export has until recently been prohibited 
because it was thought that every beast sent out of the 
country was one lost to Abyssinia, one less to eat or to breed 
from, and that that way spelled hunger! King Edward VII 
sent some magnificent specimens of some of our good breeds 
of bull to the Emperor Menelik, but unfortunately these all 
died on the journey save two, and even they only survived 
for a few days after reaching the capital—the long trek 
from the coast in an alien climate had been too much. 

Other efforts on a very small scale have not proved more 
satisfactory, but with all our East African experience as a 
guide there is no reason why the importation of stock should 
not be successful—it is an essential to the proper develop- 


at 


252 Animal Life 


ment of the cattle possibilities of the country. The animals 
are small, and are distinguished by the hump common to 


ee 


———————————————— 


African cattle ; in the north I believe there is another anda | 


different breed, but I have not seen them. 

Flocks of goats are plentiful, especially in those districts 
where sheep do not thrive so well; the latter are of various 
breeds of which the black head and the fat-tail varieties are 
probably the most valuable. ‘Touching these animals 
Ludolph, writing in the seventeenth century, included in his 
book a delightful illustration showing the fat-tail sheep, 
dragging behind it a neat little cart on two wheels com- 
plete with breast harness and traces to carry its tail—a 
flock of some thousands of these would have created quite a 
boom in the local carpenters’ shops ! 

The rams have long and curling horns, and one of these 
beasts played the star-part in an incident which convulsed 
Addis Ababa with laughter for a long while. One afternoon 
we were on our way to call on Ras Tafari with another 
European whom we will call Monsieur X, who had explained 


to us that he was not much at home on a pony and was — 


accordingly riding a mule. Ina narrow path near the palace 
we passed through a flock of sheep going in the opposite 
direction, and somehow a ram’s horn got fixed in our 
friend’s stirrup iron much to the disgust of the mule and 


the consternation of its rider, whose foot was firmly jammed — 


and who appeared in the depths of despair. The mule and 
the ram revolving rapidly in circles kicked and butted each 


other with enthusiasm; the horseman clung on frantically, 


and the onlookers shook with helpless laughter. ‘Then the 
mule bolted, dragging the ram along by its horn at such a 
pace that it was carried off its feet and flung up and down 
in the air being kicked vigorously by the mule, and banging 
against that terrified creature and the no less alarmed M. X, 
who fell forward on the mule’s neck, which he embraced 
fondly. Faster and faster galloped the mule, M. X’s 
mackintosh streaming behind him in the wind and rain, the 


| 
Animal Life 253 


ram flying up and down in the air like a large black balloon, 
bumping the ground, the mule, and the rider in turn. 

After about a couple of hundred yards of this exhilarating 
progress M. X came off heavily and rolled into the quagmire 
of mud by the wayside amid shrieks of joy from the assem- 

bled multitudes, and the mule with the ram still in close 
attendance disappeared in the distance, the latter dropping 
_off dead about a quarter of a mile further on. 

M. X, whom we discovered on all fours in a mud bath 
hunting for his eyeglass, was physically not much the worse 
for his adventure, but the most bitter blow for him was yet 
-tocome ; for when he offered compensation to the shepherd 
for the loss of his animal, that individual, still shaking with 
laughter, and his eyes streaming with tears, refused to accept 

a single piastre, saying that he had never enjoyed anything 
so much in his life, and that he wouldn’t dream of being 
paid for it. 
As to domestic animals, horses, mules, and donkeys are 
found everywhere, and with the exception of transport in 
the low country, for which camels are employed, they are 
used for everything. The Abyssinian horses are small but 
_ strong and compact-looking, sure-footed little animals about 
_polo-pony size. They must have been pretty numerous 
some centuries ago, as Ludolph refers to a King of Ethiopia 
having entered Egypt at the head of 100,000 cavalry ; 
incidentally he also described the then prevalent colour as 
_ being black, whereas now it is grey. The breed appears to 
be one sui generis, possessing no noticeably special features 

of its own, but not exactly like any other breed. It has 
certain points of resemblance with the Arab, e.g. in the 
way it carries its tail, but the head is not similar. 

They are remarkably free from vice; indeed, I only met 
one horse during the whole of our stay that could even 

remotely be described as vicious. But they are exceedingly 
nervous when first brought in, no doubt owing to the way 
in which they have been handled by their native owners. 


254. Animal Life 


And they practically all have.an almost incurable habit of 
shying at anything and everything, even the most ordinary 
objects. The only possible explanation that has been offered 
for this is that when they are foals they are, during the rains, 
kept in the huts of their owners, and the smoke from the 
fires therein permanently injures their sight; I give this 
explanation for what it is worth. They are easily trained 
otherwise, and are used by Europeans for every purpose, 
not merely as their only means of locomotion, but also for 
polo, paper chases, gymkhanas, etc.; after they have been 
well cared for in a European’s stable for a short while they 
become quite creditable hacks, and are good natural 
jumpers. ‘They are never shod by Abyssinians, and by 
Europeans only in the rainy season, as the hoofs become 
softer then. 

Abyssinians do not as a rule ride horses, they much prefer 
mules, though these cost a good deal more ; for a first-rate 
riding mule anything from $100 to $300 may be paid, 
whilst a good horse can be bought for from $30 to $80—the 
latter is an outside figure. 

As a general rule the natives are not fond of animals, and 
regard them purely as a means of transport either for them- 
selves or their belongings. In fact, I think without being 
unfair, | may say they are extremely cruel to their pack 
animals, and one seldom meets a horse, mule, or donkey 
used for this purpose that has not its back and sides more 
or less covered with sores. 

From religious reasons they are extremely averse from 
killing either mules or horses, and consequently when any of 
these poor creatures are ill they are left to die, and drop 
when they can no longer stand, the bones being soon picked 
clean by vultures or pariah dogs. It isa common saying that 
none has ever seen a dead donkey, but if that is true in 
Europe it certainly does not hold good in Abyssinia where 
unhappily the carcasses of these beasts can be seen only too 
frequently. | 


| Animal Life 255 


| A very noticeable point in connection with domestic 
animals, such as horses, mules, cattle, sheep, poultry, etc. 
(goats seem to be excepted), is that they are almost invariably 
smaller than animals of the same species in other countries. 
The largest horse I have seen in Addis Ababa—and I think 
I may say the pick reach there for the benefit of the Euro- 
_peans—was 15.2 hands, and this was considered a phenom- 
enon. ‘This was especially notable in the case of poultry 
imported from Europe, which in a few generations dwindled 
to almost the same size as the native variety. 


CHAPTER: XXII 
Foreign Life & Influence 


HERE is quite a large foreign community in 
Addis Ababa, mainly consisting of small Greek 
merchants, minor French employés of the railway, 
and a mixed smattering of small traders and 
artisans (French, Italian, Armenian, Syrian, etc.). Exclud- 
ing those individuals, the European colony may be said, for 
social purposes, to consist of about thirty or thirty-five 
persons. ‘This small contingent lives very comfortably, and 
manages, in the intervals of its commercial or political work, 
to put up a good deal of amusement and entertainment in 
one way and another. Polo, race meetings, paper-chases, 
tennis, lunch and tea parties, picnics, gymkhanas, bridge, 
and even golf are all laid under contribution. Of course 
Addis Ababa is the only town in Abyssinia where anything 
of the sort is possible ; in no other centre is the European 
population adequate to allow of social amenities on this scale. 
In the town itself there are the senior English officials 
of the Bank of Abyssinia (a branch of the National Bank of 
Egypt) and their wives and families; the French political 
Director of the Railway and the French political adviser to 
the Abyssinian Government. There are also a French and 
an, Italian doctor, and the senior representatives of one or 
two European trading Societies with their families. 
Then about three miles from the town lie the Legations, 
where, in addition to the Ministers and their families and 
staff, there are constantly guests, either on a visit to their 


friends, or else men passing through in quest of some good 
256 


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Foreign Life & Influence 257 


shooting, or looking at the commercial possibilities of the 
country, and making Addis Ababa their headquarters. 

The Legation quarter as it is called is, as might be 
expected, the centre of social intercourse and amusement. 
The Legation buildings are all situated in their own large 
grounds, given by the Emperor Menelik, lying slightly above 
and well away from the dirt and noise of the town. A more 
lovely spot would be hard to find, for the grounds are well- 
wooded, the gardens are full of beautiful flowers of all 
kinds, and they command gorgeous views over the surround- 
ing country. Alone in Addis they enjoy their own supplies 
of fresh running water, for streams flow down from the 
mountains immediately behind them and are piped into 
their very grounds. 

The British and Italian Legations are of modern European 
appearance and structure, and are roofed with a compound 
known as éfernite imitating tiling. The French is older and 
has retained the aspect of the native house externally with 
thatched roof, but internally it has been modernized and 
made most artistic and comfortable. The Russian Legation, 
which is the largest construction of the four, I have pre- 
viously described. 

The servant difficulty has not yet penetrated into 
Abyssinia. They are plentiful and good, but though their 
wages individually are low, the total wage bill mounts up to 
a good figure, as it is necessary to keep so many, no doubt 
mainly on account of the Eastern habit of one man one job. 

They are inclined to quarrel amongst themselves, and 
violent altercations are a not uncommon occurrence in the 
domestic quarters sometimes leading to blows, even to 
bloodshed. On one occasion our table boy, after cutting 
the chief cook’s head open with a stick, swore he would 
finish him off, and rushed off to fetch his gun; the 
trembling cook had to be escorted to his hut by two or 
three Zabanias ; but the next morning they were all at work 
together as if nothing had happened. 

R 


258 Foreign Life & Influence 


No native servants sleep in the house, but huts are usually 
provided for them and their families in the grounds. 
Though very dirty in their homes, they are comparatively 
(and certainly superficially) clean in their master’s house. 
The white national costume is supplied to them to wear 
when on duty, and these they themselves wash and as a rule 
keep them beautifully white ; worn with a coloured sash 
they look extremely clean and smart. A good headman, 
other than Abyssinian, to look after the household is a 
necessity, as at first they are apt to clean boots, knives, and 
silver with the same brush and have other little peculiarities, 
They are dignified and respectful, but not by any means 
servile. 

They make remarkably good cooks, and a native carefully 
trained may turn into a culinary expert that would not 
disgrace the kitchen of a European gourmet. ‘They seem to 
have a special aptitude in this direction, and but for some 
lack of attention to cleanliness they leave little to be desired. 

Wages, as I have said, are low; the junior servants, both 
indoors and out, are paid about 8 dollars per month, and 
the upper servants from 12 to 18 dollars, with the exception 
of the head cook, who generally earns from 25 to 35 dollars 
per month. In addition to their wages they are given three 
times a year—at Xmas, Easter, and Mascal—a costume 
length of abougedid, a small monetary present, and an ox or 
some sheep wherewith to celebrate the occasion. The head 
indoor servants and saises have their serving clothes and 
uniforms supplied to them; but apart from this they have © 
nothing but their quarters, no furniture nor food. 

Though a good deal of the produce of the country is 
cheap, living is on the whole dear, mainly owing to the 
extortionate price of commodities imported from Europe. 
Thus while on the one hand in Addis an ox costs only from 
fifteen to twenty-five dollars, a sheep a dollar and a half, a 
fowl a quarter of a dollar, eggs sixty for a dollar—all of 
course very much less out in the country—yet on the other 


Foreign Life & Influence 259 


hand grass to feed one’s cows (which it is necessary to keep 
for milk and butter) is very dear, and wood for firing costs 
a dollar a donkey load. Oil for lighting purposes is a huge 
price, and the sundries, such as jams, biscuits, preserves, 
cereals, etc., which play such a large part in one’s house- 
hold economy, are more than double post-war European 
prices. 

To light our house with oil lamps cost us £120 a year, and 
our kitchen fire worked out at about £110 per annum. This, 
Tam bound to say, was due in part to the price of the dollar, 
which rose in 1919-20 to double its normal value, i.e. from 
ten to five to the £1. Now that the dollar is back again to 
almost its normal value of ten to £1 things would cost 
English people a good deal less. 

It is necessary to grow one’s own vegetables, as curiously 
enough practically none that we should like, except potatoes, 
are to be bought. The Legations and most of the European 
houses contain their own kitchen gardens in which most 
varieties of vegetables are to be found, everything growing 
abundantly in this wonderful fertile soil. 

All these gardens are crowded with the most gorgeous 
flowers of every description, both English hot-house and 
garden specimens, all growing alike in the same beds, and 
practically all the year round. Roses, too, of every variety 
thrive particularly well, and as can be imagined an immense 
amount of pleasure may be derived from a garden in Addis, 
where it is almost possible to watch things growing, and 
where the climatic variations so disastrous to European 
products need never be ferred. 

But so many forms of occupation and amusement are 
available, especially in the dry season, that gardening is not 
allowed to claim too much of one’s time. Naturally in a 
country where riding is practically the only means of 
locomotion, horses play a prominent part in everyone’s life, 
and so, although the European community is so small, there 
is actually a polo club and race course at Addis. 


260 Foreign Life & Influence 


Both polo and race meetings take place on a large plain 
between the town and the Legations, and H.H. Ras 
Tafari, the present Regent and Heir-Apparent, is President 
of the Imperial Club, the members of which manage 
the polo and racing. The late Italian minister to the 
Court of Abyssinia, Count Colli, was a splendid all round 
sportsman and was Chairman of the Committee, the 
representative of the British Legation being Vice- 
Chairman. 

Polo is played twice a week during the dry weather, and 
it is, [ think, rather remarkable that in such a small community 
it should be possible to get together two teams for the 
purpose. The eight generally consisted of three or four 
from the British Legation, a native officer of the Indian 
escort attached to the Legation, an Italian, a Russian, and 
one or two other Englishmen. ‘The Club provide tea on 
these days in their picturesque little club-house, and there 
is usually quite a gathering of onlookers reminiscent of 
Hurlingham on a small—a very small—scale. But though 
plenty of fun is to be got out of the game, I fear that the 
Hurlingham authorities would look with surprise and 
horror at the rather marked inequalities of the ground. 

Race meetings are organized by the Club twice a year, 
and very admirably they are carried out, under the able 
direction of Major Dodds of the British Legation, who is 
not only a first-class horseman and horse master, but a keen 
enthusiast for every form of sport. 

The meeting held in June, 1920, was attended by the 
Empress and Ras ‘Tafari; it was the first public European 
function attended by the Empress, and great preparations 
had been made. A special pavilion was arranged, lined with 
cloth of the Abyssinian colours, beautiful rugs being laid — 
down inside and along the front. 

It was a remarkable sight to watch the approach of the 
Empress and her cortége from the palace across the plain— ~ 
thousands of officers, attendants and soldiers, mounted and 


Foreign Life & Influence 261 


on foot accompanied her, the gorgeous trappings of the 
mules and the immaculate white robes of the men making 
an impressive picture. And the interest shown in the pro- 
ceedings may be gauged by the immense crowd of Abyssinians 
who thronged round the club-house where the prizes were 
distributed by the Empress. 

Paper-chases across country are another means of passing 
the time ; but these are as a rule only attended by the English 
members of the community. They are rather wild pro- 
ceedings, as they not only involve jumping mud and stone 
walls, banks and hedges, but also galloping over country 
plentifully sprinkled with holes and other bad places. They 
provide capital sport, however, and the spills that occurred 
while we were there had no serious results. 

Owing to the lack of roads not many people care to risk 
driving. ‘There are, however, a few venturesome folk who 
have brought out four-wheeled dog-carts, and a good deal 
of amusement is obtainable from trying different numbers 
of ponies in these conveyances. Major Dodds, who was an 
excellent whip, occasionally turned out a team of four in his 
cart, greatly to the edification of the population to whom 
driving is an unknown art, and my wife managed to induce 
a team of three to progress more or less irregularly in a cart 
of hers, out of which she was, mirabile dictu, only thrown 
once. ‘The others contented themselves with a single animal, 
or more rarely a pair, which on the whole was probably about 
the wisest thing to do. 

Tennis on gravel and earth courts flourishes during 
the dry season, and a tennis party in the grounds of 
one of the larger houses makes a picturesque scene. The 
setting of luxuriant vegetation and brilliant flowers, the 
tea-tents among the trees, the groups of horses of the guests 
held by saises in their different coloured liveries, or by the 
Sowars or troopers of the escorts of the other Legations in 
their smart uniforms, and the little knot of Europeans, with 
numbers of quaintly dressed servants to pick up the 


262 Foreign Life & Influence 


balls—all combine to make a picture of brightness and 
gaiety that is sadly lacking from a European function 
of the kind. 

Entertaining is fortunately easy in Addis Ababa—riding 
being the universal means of locomotion there is no bitter 
competition in smart “‘ toilettes ”’ among the female mem- 
bers of the community, nor does this spirit of rivalry and 
ostentation figure in other ways. People entertain to lunch 
or to tea (more rarely to dinner) for the pleasure of meeting, 
and the uniform of breeches and riding coats makes a choice 
of costume easy. ‘There are small or large luncheon parties 
very frequently and teas every day in any season, the cosmo- 
politan nature of these gatherings adding appreciably to 
their attractiveness ; | remember one day at lunch conver- 
sation was going on round the table in five different 
languages simultaneously. 

One of the most pleasant functions of the sort was a 
children’s tea party and gymkhana organized at the German 
Legation, which was attended by Ras Tafari’s three youngest 
children. All the small competitors were dressed as pierrots, 
and they made a delightful picture on their little ponies 
in the pretty grounds tilting at the ring, playing musical 
chairs in improvised stalls, and throwing balls into baskets. 
Not the least impressive part of the function was an egg and 
spoon race (on foot this time) in which the future ruler of 
Ethiopia with an expression of tremendous determination 
on his small face managed to defeat his elder sister by a 
short head after a great finish up the straight. 

The Abyssinians, who are very fond of children, enjoyed 
the proceedings intensely ; and the stately looking chiefs who 
had accompanied the Ras’ children so far unbent as to be 
almost doubled up with laughter. 

The break-up of the party was extraordinarily interesting 
to watch; the Ras’ children, veiled up to and over their 
eyes, rode off in the midst of aband of wild-looking Abys- 
sinian warriors armed to the teeth, the picturesque Legation 


Foreign Life & Influence 263 


escorts provided a wonderful touch of colour, whilst a motor 
car which had recently arrived in Addis introduced an 
incongruous element into the picture, and drove the ponies 
of the other guests almost frantic in their terror at this 
uncouth innovation. 

Dinner is more complicated, for that generally means 
putting up friends in or near one’s house, as long rides after 
dinner are almost impossible in the rains, and not very 
pleasant at any time except just at the full moon. Mr. 
Jorrocks’ dictum of ‘‘ Where I dines I sleeps ” applies very 
much in this connection. 

Nevertheless there were a few dinner parties from time to 
time; Ras Tafari has entered wholeheartedly into this 
form of entertaining, and his little parties are very pleasant. 

As in most outposts of civilization the spirit of hospitality 
is strongly marked, and this, added to the excellent feeling 
which obtains in the little European colony, the perfect 
climate always about as warm as a temperate summer day in 
England, and the grand mountain scenery, make life in 
Addis a very agreeable one. 

No account of the foreign community would be complete 
without mention of M. Chefneu, the Grand Old Man of 
Addis. Having inhabited the country for forty years, need- 
less to say there is very little he does not know about it or 
its inhabitants. A Frenchman by birth, and an engineer by 
profession, thanks are due to him for the very important 
part he played in obtaining the concession for, and in the 
construction of the Franco-Ethiopian Railway—to him also 
was given by the Emperor Menelik the concession for estab- 
lishing the first postal service between Addis Ababa and 
Djibouti. At one time he embraced with success the trade 
of merchant, but Menelik’s calls on his time were so great 
that this had to be abandoned, and he took up the position 
of foreign adviser to the Emperor. M. Chefneu is liked 
and respected by all who come in contact with him, and 
though he is becoming somewhat-advanced in age he is still 


264 Foreign Life & Influence 


able to take part in affairs of importance, and is indis- — 
pensable at Court, where he acts as a kind of Master of the — 
Ceremonies at large functions where Europeans are present. — 
He has naturally enjoyed many unique experiences— — 
amongst others he told us how he was deputed before the _ 


railway to the coast was constructed to conduct two young 


lions all the way from the capital to Djibouti, the animals ~ 


being led only by a collar and chain. Part of the way they 
were carried on camels in loosely made crates, and when 


camping at night were chained to a tree. M. Chefneu ; 


assured me that these lions were absolutely quiet, and easily 
managed, and he succeeded in taking them without any 
mishap to France where he presented them to the then 
President of the French Republic. 

_ He is one of the few foreigners who have lived in Abys- 
sinia for a long while without a breath of scandal ever 
attaching to his name in matters financial; by universal 
consent he is regarded as an absolutely honest and straight- 
forward man, and as he has never made use of his manifold 
opportunities to benefit himself he is, I am sorry to say, a 
comparatively poor man. 

Unfortunately little of the foreign element in Abyssinia 
has been of the calibre of M. Chefneu, and no doubt that is 
partly the reason why foreign influence is not greater than 
it actually is. I do not think that it counts for very much 
to-day, although it is, I think, showing signs of growth and 
of change of orientation. Generally speaking, there is next 


to no foreign religious influence, no foreign financial influ- 
ence, for there are no foreign loans, and foreign commercial 


influence, for reasons I have explained elsewhere, is not the 
hardy plant it might be. 

Nevertheless, Europe has exercised, and does to a limited 
extent exercise, a certain amount of influence on the country, 
and would have exercised a good deal more had it not been 
for the existence of international rivalries. 

The various foreign countries have endeavoured each in 


Foreign Life & Influence 265 


their own way to extend their influence, and each has its own 
institutions in Addis and elsewhere. The French have 
hitherto been probably the most active of the principal 

~ countries there in this respect. Their influence has made 
itself felt by the railway and in the other directions I have 

“described, and they have also a branch of the “ Alliance 
_ Frangaise ” at the headquarters of which, the Hétel de 
ME rance, meetings, dinners, dances, and cinematograph 
Bisplays are held. The British community is held together 
by the Patriotic League to which belong British subjects 
of a variety of nationalities, Cretan, Arab, and Indian ; 
between them they subscribed the means of buying two 
aeroplanes for the British forces during the Great War, no 
mean contribution for such a small and comparatively poor 
community. 

Russian influence is practically non-existent ; the fear of 
Bolshevist agents spreading their doctrines in the country 
has led to the exclusion of many would-be immigrants of that 
nationality, though a few have found their way in, and one 
—an ex-colonel—is employed to look after the Ras’ gardens 
and dairy. 

But the growing influences in Abyssinia seem likely to be 
American, Belgian, and German. 

For each of these there is a different reason, though they 
have one in common, namely, that these countries having no 
territory contiguous to Abyssinia the activities of their 
nationals are regarded with less suspicion. ‘The reasoning 
may seem to us rather far-fetched, but it is so nevertheless. 

As to the other reasons, they seem to be somewhat as 
follows. Germany having lost her colonies not unnaturally 
seeks for an outlet for her manhood and a favourable opening 
for her goods and her enterprize. Practically the only place 
of the kind left in Africa is Abyssinia, and what therefore 
is more likely than that special efforts should be made to 
secure afoothold there? I read recently an interesting work 
on the country published a couple of years ago in Germany, 


266 Foreign Life & Iufluence 


and giving in three volumes as a result of four years’ labour 
of a scientific, economic, and political mission a penetrating - 
analysis of the country’s capacities from several points of 
view. It is a thorough work, and the author, after arriving. 
at his conclusions as to the future, which are very optimistic, © 
adds that Germany, in view of the loss of her colonies and 
the restriction of her territory, must look to emigration as a_ 
solution of some of her economic difficulties, and points to 
Abyssinia as the field for such emigration and as one of the { 
most promising features of Germany’ s future. , 

Whether concerted action in this direction is being taken 
or not I cannot say, but it is at least certain that I 
heard a good deal of German spoken in Addis this 
year, which was certainly not the case on the occasion of 
previous stays, and that quite a number of newly arrived 
Germans are at the present moment to be found in the 
country. 

As regards Belgium the case is very different. The 
financiers of that country are paying marked attention to 
Abyssinia, and a powerful group has already commenced — 
operations in the direction, as I have described in the chapter — 
dealing with trade and commerce. The result is that they [ 
are viewed very favourably by the native Government, and — 
at the moment their star is so much in the ascendant that — 
if they play their cards well it is not at all unlikely that in 
the course of a few years they may require a really pre- 
dominant position. : 

American activities have taken another form, and it — 
would perhaps be unkind to suggest that they are directed — 
to the end of obtaining political influence in the country — 
especially as they have no diplomatic representative in 
residence. Nevertheless their influence is considerable, and — 
is likely to grow, and they are well liked there; they are 
erecting a large hospital with 300 beds in Addis, a sure road _ 
to popularity in Abyssinia, and their missionary enterprize — 
has been considerably extended in the Galla and other 


hi 


Foreign Life & Influence 267 


districts. In one way and another they are spending a good 
deal of money, and are endeavouring to interest Americans 
in the country, by writing and cinematograph propaganda. 
The favour which is shown by the Government to American 
visitors to Addis is marked, and is an instructive indication 
of the trend of feeling towards their country, and of the 
degree of influence which it might exercise should occasion 
arise. 

Numerically England is not strongly represented in 
Abyssinia; apart from the Legation and consular officials 
and the representatives of the Bank of Abyssinia and of one 
or two commercial houses, there are practically no English 
people in the country, and very few visit it nowadays. ‘This 
is the more remarkable, inasmuch as it is impossible to 
imagine a more delightful place in which to spend a holiday, 
whether for purposes of travel, sport, or otherwise. The 
climate is everything that could be desired. The scenery 
is an ever-changing panorama of beauty—mountainous, 
wooded, watered—and life on trek under canvas in sur- 
roundings such as these is about as healthy and enjoyable a 
form of existence as the world can offer. 

Moreover our influence in Abyssinia is not likely to be 
increased by the campaign of misrepresentation of Abys- 
‘sinian’s affairs and of attacks on the Regent and the Govern- 
‘ment which has recently been carried on here. That there 
are failings and shortcomings in their Government methods 
and abuses which ought to be remedied no one would deny— 
they are indeed fully recognized by the Regent himself— 
and no self-respecting person would dream of suggesting 
fatuous adulation in order to curry favour in the country 
and so to increase our influence there. 

But to pour ridicule and abuse on all things Abyssinian 
and especially on the Regent’s efforts to improve matters in 
the face of great and—to most Europeans—unknown and 
ununderstood difficulties, is simply to play into the hands of 
the reactionary party who point to such abuse as the 


268 Foreign Life & Influence 


foreigner’s encouragement to the progressive party, and are 
not slow to suggest that behind all this is a deeper and more 
sinister motive, and a desire to represent the country in so 
bad a light as to justify and even to necessitate foreign 
intervention. And any country once tarred with that brush 
may look in vain to the possibility of being able to influence 
the Government and the rulers of Abyssinia in the direction 
in which all right-minded persons would wish them to go. 


CHAPTER: “XXT 
Political Situation 


HE Abyssinian equivalents of our Home Secretary 

and Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs must 

find it exceedingly difficult to direct their respec- 

tive spheres of influence without impinging on 
each other, for it is almost impossible to draw a dividing line 
between home and foreign politics in that country, each 
enters to so great an extent into the domain of the other. 
Both present factors of considerable complexity and difh- 
culty, and a crisis in the affairs of the one might easily be the 
cause of serious trouble in regard to the other. 

As in most countries there are two political parties or 
schools of thought. At the head of the one is the Prince 
Regent and Heir-Apparent, standing for progress, for the 
development of his country by foreign aid, for the intro- 
duction of ideas and reforms from Europe and America and 
generally for ‘‘ modernization.” He is surrounded by the 
more intelligent and better educated Abyssinians, and there 
is little doubt but that were he in sole and supreme authority 
the advance of Ethiopia along the path of progress would be 
considerably more rapid than has actually been the case. 

Unfortunately the opposite school of thought acts as a 
very powerful drag on Ras ‘T'afari’s efforts. Around the 
Empress, the nominal ruler of the country, is gathered all 
that is reactionary and anti-progressive, and consequently 
anti-foreign (by anti-foreign I mean opposed to the intro- 
duction of foreign ideas) and this party includes some of the 
most powerful nobles and, of course, the priesthood. 

269 


270 Political Situation 


Until 1921 there was also a third party, the supporters 
of the ex-emperor Lej Yasu, but the capture of this 
stormy petrel produced a very salutary and tranquillizing 
effect on the disturbing elements who had hoped to gain 
something by fishing in the troubled waters which would 
have flooded the land had Lej Yasu regained power. 

Now it may readily be imagined how a situation such as 
I have described lends itself to intrigue and wire-pulling 
of every kind by persons of native or foreign nationality, 
who, whether to further their own ends or to defeat the 
objects of their rivals, take every advantage of the two- 
headed monarchy to sow trouble. 

There is no doubt but that rivalry between the two 
political factions was at one time great, indeed serious 3 
efforts were even made by the reactionary party to “ im- 
peach” the Regent on a series of perfectly trumpery 
charges, the main burden of the song being that he was 
selling his country to the Frangi. At that time things did 
not look too hopeful, and it might well have been feared 
that in a country where matters political have generally 
been settled by the sword, such methods would recur. 

But in fact they did not, and in the last two or three 
years relations between the two parties have considerably 
improved, largely no doubt owing to the gradual if slow 
increase of the power and prestige of the Regent. He is” 
still, of course, opposed by the reactionaries ; certain dis- 
tricts of the country are still governed by rulers who do not 
share his ideas and who would be glad that the country 
should remain in statu quo ; but his political views are, I 
think, making headway, though he is much hampered and 
is compelled to proceed with great caution. | 

Accurate information on political movements and currents 
are not easy to obtain, there are no local newspapers to. 
guide (or mislead) the student of the political barometer. 
But on the other hand there is a good deal that cannot be 
concealed and that is common property to those residents 


Political Situation 271 


in the country who care to try and find out and who are at 

all “in the know.” 
_ Alarmist rumours of portentous political events are, of 
course, always rife—very often these are due to persons 
with gifted and super-heated imaginations—sometimes they 
are put about by individuals with whom the wish is father 
to the thought, and naturally such rumours if they reach 
Europe are likely to get a good deal more publicity than 
sober statements of fact. 

The home political barometer, however, if it cannot yet be 
said to be Set Fair, is at all events at the moment steady 
and seems likely to rise, and the situation is more satisfactory 
than it has been for some time. It is just as well that it is 
so, for if the internal political situation were likely to lead 
to active outbreaks where danger to European life and 
Property were involved, the question of foreign intervention 
would at once come to the fore, and the further difficulties 
that might and probably would arise as a result would be 
far-reaching. 

_ Fortunately both political parties are fully alive to this, 
and as they are absolutely united on the common ground 
of attachment to their independence and intense aversion to 
foreign domination or even interference, they have a very 


‘powerful inducement to keep their domestic rivalry within 


bounds, an inducement which, as I have already pointed 
out, is proving quite effective in improving their mutual 
telationship. 

The foreign political situation is by no means free from 
elements of discord as it is even now, though it has greatly 
improved in recent years. To understand it clearly, it is 
Necessary to consider the geographical position of Abyssinia 
and some events of recent history. 

Abyssinia has a frontier of some 3000 miles, of which 
nearly two-thirds is British, the bulk of the remainder 
Italian, and a very small portion of some 200 miles French. 
It is entirely cut off from the sea by the Italian Colony of 


272 Political Situation 


Eritrea in the north-east, British Somaliland in the south- 
east, and French Somaliland between them. Its natural 

harbours from Massowah to Berbera are in the hands of one 

or other of these three Powers. ‘The terminus of the railway 

from the capital is the French port of Djibouti. Its trade 

routes (which are described elsewhere) have to run through 

one or other of these European settlements ; it can recelve 
nothing except with their permission. Its border tribes 

have been very troublesome, and their raiding proclivities 

have been a frequent source of difficulty with the other 

neighbouring powers,—consequently it is and must be 
brought continually into touch with the three great Powers” ‘ 
concerned, and with which more than with the British 
Empire, whose frontiers it touches in the Soudan, Uganda, 
British East Africa, and British Somaliland, a distance of 

nearly 2000 miles? 

As an example of the frontier difficulties that have hap- 
pened I may refer to that which occurred on the South- 
Western Frontier and to deal with which a joint British 
and Abyssian Mission was despatched early in 1919. 

The British representatives whom we had the pleasure 
of meeting in Addis Ababa on their return were naturally 
and properly reticent about the political side of their 
Mission ; but from the lecture given by Major Athill before 
the Royal Geographical Society in June, 1920, we learn that 
“The Governor of Magi” (a place some eighty miles 
north of Lake Rudolf), ‘‘ whose geography was not his 
strong point, had made a small error as to the position of — 
his frontier. The unfortunate result of this error was a 
fight between Abyssinian and Sudanese troops, in which 
three Sudanese officers and several men were killed. We 
were sent with three Abyssinian Commissioners to investi- 
gate and to try to prevent further friction.” 

It may well be understood even from this light and 
tactful reference to the trouble that had arisen, how serious - 
a question the border one is and how fraught with pos- 


(j 
i 
‘ 

FY 
el 
ri 
td, 

uy 
i 


| 


; 


Political Situation 273 


sibilities of real danger, given the enormous extent of co- 
terminus frontier. 

As an instance of the importance of other political 
interests involved between the two countries it is only 
necessary to point to the Egyptian irrigation question. For 
the origin of the waters so vital to this great work is in Abys- 
sinia, and consequently Egypt depends to a considerable 
extent on Abyssinia for her prosperity. This was recognized 
in the Convention of 1902 between England and Abyssinia, 
in Article III of which Menelik bound himself, “‘ not to 
construct or allow to be constructed any work across the 
Blue Nile, Lake T’sana, or the Sobat which would arrest 
the flow of their waters into the Nile, except in agreement 
with H.B.M. Govt. and the Govt. of the Sudan.” 

And yet in spite of the obvious political and commercial 
interests involved, it is not until comparatively recently, 
i.e. 1897, that any serious efforts appear to have been made 
to cultivate or develop them, although the first great 
modern explorer of Abyssinia was an Englishman, and 
the first treaty concluded with an Abyssinian monarch was 
that signed in 1841 by Captain Harris and King Sehala 
Salassie of Shoa. 

The Napier expedition had raised our prestige in the 
country to a pinnacle—the uninterrupted success of our 
forces, the admirable behaviour of the troops, the strict 
adherence to our promise of payment for supplies and of 
evacuation after liberation of the prisoners, had earned 


us unrivalled respect in the country. Had we then left 


with the Emperor Johannes a representative to keep us in 
touch with the development of the country it is possible 
that its history might have been very different, as was 
pointed out by Mr. Wylde in his book over twenty 
years ago. 

But so far from doing anything of the kind we appear 


_ to have ignored the country from 1868 to 1884 and then 
_ we had to invoke its help. For we were clearing out of the 


Ss 


274. Political Situation 


Soudan and being unable to remove the unfortunate 
garrisons therein stationed, Admiral Sir William Hewett’s 1 
mission had to be despatched to secure King Johannes’ 
assistance in delivering our troops. 

A treaty was signed, mainly for this purpose (and also 
another one to endeavour to effect the abolition of the | 
slave trade), and in 1886 a naval officer was despatched to. 
convey to King John a sword of honour from H.M. 
Queen Nicrona as a mark of thanks for having carried — 
out his part of the first of these two agreements. 

The year 1884 was also signalized by our baronies 
of the fertile province of Harrar which was handed over 
to its native ruler ; this unfortunate individual was attacked 
and defeated by Menelik (then King of Shoa) and Harrar . 
was annexed by him in 1887. 

In that year Mr. (now Sir Gerald) Portal was deputed to. 
undertake a mission to King John to endeavour to avert 
the impending hostilities between Italy and Abyssinia, i 


but the mission was unsuccessful, and very nearly had a i 


tragic termination. 

It was during this decade (i.e. between 1880 and rSqo}ih 
when we were withdrawing from all connection with hel 
country that Europe first began to take a real interest in 
matters Abyssinian. } 

At this period Italy from the north through Eritrea and _ 
France in the south through Shoa were beginning to reveal l 
their designs and intentions, which though very different — 
and opposed to each other were both of a bold and drastic ; 
character. ‘he Italians contemplated the declaration of 
a protectorate over Abyssinia as part of Crispi’s dream of © 
an empire stretching from the shores of the Mediterranean 7 
to the Indian Ocean, and France’s project was the linking - 
up of her possessions across Africa from east to west from 
the Congo to French Somaliland. 

The next decade, 1890-1900, was perhaps the most 
momentous in modern Abyssinian history, so far as its 


Political Situation if 


external political relations were concerned. ‘This period 
witnessed the failure of both the great projects to which 
I have just referred ; but whereas Italian prestige as a result 
vanished for the time, the position of the French became 
predominant and the Power with the least stake in that 
part of Africa and with no contiguous possessions of any 
commercial value became facile princeps. 

This was in part due to the assistance given by the French 
to the Abyssinians, and in part to the assiduous efforts 
made to cultivate Abyssinian friendship by the French 
Tepresentatives in the country of whom there were many, 
notably the Minister M. Lagarde, who, in the words of 
M. Hanotaux, concluded “un véritable traité dalliance” 
in 1897. 

By this Treaty M. Hanotaux states that : 


~ Ménélik affirmait sa volonté de revendiquer comme 
frontiére occidentale de son empire le Nil entre le 5 et le 
14 degre Nord. Les principes d’une action commune dans 
tous les ordres d’idées, commerce, finance, travaux publics, 
expansion géographique, entente diplomatique, furent 
établis, et si ces résultats n’eurent pas toutes les suites 
qu’on en eut pu attendre encore est-il juste de reconnattre 
qu’on les avait préparé. 

On s’assurait en somme par ces diverses tentatives des 
concours qui pouvaient étre précieux a Vheure décisive.” 


The treaty was never published; the conquering 
expeditions engineered by M. Lagarde in accordance with 
his instructions hardly realized expectations, and the 
Emperor Menelik’s circular to the Powers of 1891 in which 


he announced his intention of re-establishing the traditional 


frontiers of Ethiopia up to the Nile as far north as Khar- 
toum and as far south as Lake Nyanza together with all 
the Galla countries, and expressed a hope that the sea 
coast would in part at all events be returned to him, 


-Temained in the pigeon holes of the European Foreign 


Offices. 


276 Political Situation 


Nevertheless French penetration continued to progress 
successfully ; the railway concession was granted to a 
French Company in 1894, and the procession of foreign 
missions to Menelik soon afterwards did not affect the 
position materially, although the British mission under Sir 
Rennel Rodd negotiated an Anglo-Abyssinian ‘Treaty, and 
as a result Captain (now Sir John) Harrington was appointed 
in 1898 as the first diplomatic representative of England 
at the Court of Abyssinia. 

The railway concession proved a veritable apple of 
discord which not only caused difficulties between Abyssinia 
and France, but also between France and England. 

For in the first place the construction of the railway 
with its terminus at Djibouti could but have the result 
of diverting through French Somaliland the camel-borne 
trafic between Zaila in British Somaliland and Abyssinia, 
which had been the principal route into the country from 
the south until then. And in the second place during the 
construction of the railway (which took over twenty years 
to reach Addis Ababa) difficulties arose between the French 
and English shareholders, ending in the dispossession of 
the latter. And thirdly the concession provided for a 
further section of the railway from Addis Ababa to the 
Soudan, a possibility the obvious objections to which can 
be seen by a glance at the map. 

These difficulties with France were accentuated by those 
caused by the French efforts to form a “ line of influence ” 
across Africa from east to west to which reference has 
already been made. ‘These efforts commenced just before 
the arrival of the Rennell-Rodd mission in 1907 and 
matured after his departure—they were indications of 
a state of feeling and a policy which mercifully have long 
since ceased to exist. 

Thus the three European Powers mainly interested in 
Abyssinia were, to put it mildly, not exactly pulling together, 
and it was not until 1906 that the third difficulty referred 


Bot 


Political Situation 277 


to in connection with the railway was to some extent met, 
and other points of friction eased, by the ‘Tripartite 
agreement between England, France, and Italy, whereby 
each Power was assigned a more or less defined “ sphere of 
interest,” railway construction in the east being reserved 
to France and in the west to England. 

But an important point to note in this connection is that 
the Treaty is not signed by the Abyssinian Government, 
and consequently it is not bound by it. Indeed Menelik 
took a long time to acknowledge it at all, and then only 
did so in a half-hearted manner. 

Mainly during the decade 1900-1910 various treaties 
delimiting the frontiers of the country were signed by 
the Powers interested, treaties which the Abyssinians of 
to-day do not regard with very great favour inasmuch as 
by these instruments the cession of all their ports was made 


absolute. They attribute this to Menelik’s desire to stand 


well with the Powers and his non-realization of the per- _ 
nicious effect on Abyssinia’s interests of being cut off from 
the sea. It is possible that this point may be raised at 


no distant date. 


Little by little the heat engendered by past events 


has died down although much intrigue and rivalry of a 


minor character has been carried on, but unfortunately 


the legacy of the past remains. Each foreign Legation has 


endeavoured to support the demand for concessions in the 
country by its own nationals and as a corollary to thwart 


the efforts of the others. The French having acquired 


a predominating position by the construction of the railway 
and the staffing of the posts and telephones, seem in the 


past to have regarded Abyssinia as their special preserve, 
_ apparently forgetful of the great frontier and other interests 


which England had at stake—an attitude which I think may 


_ be to some extent understood and therefore excused owing 


to the lack of interest in the country shown by England 


_ for so many years. 


278 Political Situation 


It might be imagined from the foregoing remarks that i 
foreign politics in Abyssinia are and have been confined — 


to the Three Great Powers mentioned, but this is by no 


means the case. ‘T'rue they have been the principal actors, - 


but others have played no inconspicuous part there, and 


as they are likely to do so again in the near future, a short © 
account of the corps diplomatique at the Court of the Negus — 


may not be without interest. 
As I have said above our first diplomatic representative 
was Captain Harrington, who was originally appointed as 


as Agent in 1898, then as Consul-General in 1900, and finally _ 
as Minister in 1903, since when there has always been a — 
British Minister accredited to Abyssinia. The Hon. ~ 
Wilfred Thessiger, who succeeded Sir John Harrington © 
after the latter had served over eleven years, died whilst 
on leave in England at the beginning of 1920; the present 
Minister Mr. Claud Russell has not long been appointed, 
and during the interval British interests were in the capable ~ 
hands of consuls acting as Chargé d’Affaires—first of all — 
Mr. Campbell since appointed Consul-General at San ~ 


Francisco and later of Major Dodds. 


In addition to a Minister and his staff at Addis Ababa — 
we have also a Consul and a Vice-Consul there, and either © 
Consuls or Vice-Consuls at Gorei in Western Abyssinia, 


at Magi, at Gardula in South Abyssinia, and at Harrar. 


The Consulate of Gorei is obviously most important. @ 
Gorei is the collecting station for the major portion of a 
the exports of produce from Abyssinia to the Soudan, — 
and the Consulate covers the land leased by the Emperor © 
Menelik to the British Government as a commercial station _ 


at Gambela on the Baro River by the Treaty of 1902. 


The importance of the Consulates in Southern Abyssinia M 


a arg — 

ee a ee 

~ A < 4 ee 
a 


a 


and at Magi is less obvious to the outsider, but they are © 
doubtless to some extent valuable in dealing withthe frontier _ 


difficulties that might arise in the South owing to the 
activity of Abyssinian raiding parties. 


| 


Political Situation 279 


Harrar would appear to be declining in importance, 
and from a commercial point of view at all events, it would 
appear preferable that the Consulate should be at Dirre- 
Daoua, the most important station on the railway, and the 
main stopping-place between Addis and Djibouti. The 
Bank of Abyssinia have recently closed their Harrar Branch. 

But that there is no British representative at Djibouti 
is a matter of astonishment and regret to all commercial 
people. For the difficulties experienced by traders in 
transit through there are such that the presence of a British 
representative would seem to be imperative. The Italians 
have, I believe, recognized this so far as their own trade 
interests are concerned, and it was said that they were 
appointing a Consul there just as we were leaving. 

To-day there are four other countries represented by 
Ministers, namely, France, Italy, Belgium, and Germany, 


and of these the first two have Consuls or Vice-Consuls 
at Addis Ababa and elsewhere in addition. ‘Their interests 
are sufficiently obvious to need no explanation, but the 


necessity for Belgian and German Legations is less apparent, 
as they have no contiguous territorial interests. The recent 


commercial interest in Abyssinia shown by Belgium may, 
however, possibly account for the new appointment of 
_M. Gerard there as Minister; there have been Belgian 


Consuls in Addis intermittently in the past, but their 


stay has generally been of short duration. 


The appointment of the German Minister, Herr Weiss, 
a very pleasant and capable diplomat, has no doubt been 


dictated on commercial grounds to protect and further 
German trading interests in the country ; these had attained 
respectable proportions before the War and would doubt- 


less have increased rapidly in normal circumstances. Ger- 
man political efforts in Abyssinia had not been very happy 
up till recently; two German “ political” doctors had 
arrived towards the end of Menelik’s reign, their object 
being to obtain the posts of physician to the Emperor 


280 Political Situation 


and tutor to the heir; they got into trouble by bringing 
accusations which they failed to substantiate against 
some Abyssinian Ministers of attempting to poison the 
Emperor. As they failed to prove the truth of this some- 
what serious charge they were obliged to leave the country 
rapidly. 

During the war the Germans were active ; numbers of 
their Secret Service men were in Abyssinia endeavouring 
to assist the Mad Mullah and working closely with the 


ex-Emperor Lej Yasu. A German, Emil Kirch, who was_ 


sent to assist the Mullah to repair his guns left behind him 


an interesting diary which fell into British hands in 1920, 

and which showed the trend of German political activity 
even in Abyssinia. ‘The lot of the then German Minister | 
at Addis cannot have been a happy one during the war 


as the other diplomats being all “‘ enemies ” he was ‘1 


coventry,” 


in 
and moreover was to a large extent dependent 


on the Abyssinians for financial support as he could get 


no money from home. 


There is a very popular Greek gentleman, an out-_ 
standing specimen of his race, acting as Consul-General 
in Addis, and his task must be no sinecure, for there is 
a large Greek colony containing many “ doubtful” elements, — 


engaged in a variety of activities. M. Balanos’ predecessor, 
an individual of quite a different stamp, had been the 


first appointment as Greek Consul General, and having 
quarrelled bitterly with most of his compatriots at whose 


request the appointment had been made he was recalled. 


There have also been Russian Ministers and Consuls, — 


and American and ‘Turkish Consuls. 
The Russian Legation had been established on a most 


elaborate scale; there had been a Minister and his staff, 


a Consul, several doctors and an escort or Legation guard 
of twenty cossacks. ‘This had gradually dwindled until 


some time before our arrival the whole personnel of the 
Legation consisted of a Chargé d’Affaires, M. Winogradoff, © 


Political Situation 281 


whose sole duties appeared to consist in protecting the 
interests of the Armenians. And even he left at the end 
of 1919, and Russian (and Armenian) interests were given 
over to the French Legation. Possibly the original idea 
of the Russian Government in establishing such an imposing 
representation was to have acquired influence through the 
similarity of the religions of the two countries—the 
Orthodox and Coptic Churches being not unlike. They 
are said to have made an unsuccessful effort to induce the 
Abyssinians to place their Church under the protection of 
the Russian in lieu of as at present the Alexandrian Church. 
But as Russia had no territorial or commercial interests 
in or near Abyssinia, it is not very clear what was to be 
the precise objective of the political influence when 
obtained, unless the acquisition of territory or rights in 
Abyssinia was desired. 

The American Consul died some years ago and has not 
been replaced, American interests (solely commercial) being 
looked after by the very able American Consul at Aden, 
Mr. Southard. A commercial treaty between the U.S.A. 
and Abyssinia had been concluded in 1903 by the efforts 
of a special commissioner, Mr. R. Skinner, who concluded 
his negotiations in the record time of nine days. The 
treaty contained no very striking clauses—the main features 
being the usual most-favoured-nation clause, and another 
clause providing for the mutual establishment of diplo- 
matic representatives. 

The Turkish Consul died while we were there and he 
has not been replaced—it is difficult to see what duties 
he can have had to perform. 

Italy has been fortunate in having been strongly repre- 
sented in Abyssinia. In this country the personality of 
the representative counts for a good deal more than the 
interests represented, and to this fact must be attributed 
the influence of the Italian Legation at Addis. People 
seemed to think that since (and because of) Adowa, Italy 


282 Political Situation 


did not count in Abyssinia, but this was far from the truth. - 
Count Colli de Felizano, who was Minister when we 


arrived, had been in the country for twenty years, was the 


doyen of the corps diplomatique, and carried a great deal 
of weight at Court. He not only knew the country well, — 
but was an exceedingly able man, a charming personality, © 
and a first-rate horseman and sportsman. | 

These qualities carried great weight with the Abyssinians, 
and the equally charming personality of Countess Colli — 
helped him still further in his relations with the other | 
Europeans; with the English these were particularly cordial. 

Count Colli left during our stay, and the general regret — 
at his departure was to some extent mitigated by the © 
personality of his successor. On the appointment of M. — 
Piacentini, the Italian papers were full of praise, ]!remember © 
seeing it stated that one of the most promising diplomats — 
in the service had been selected, a fact which became fairly © 
obvious shortly after his arrival. Though he had to succeed © 
so strong a personality as Count Colli, and had to overcome ~ 
the difficulty—nowhere greater than in Abyssinia—of being — 
a new-comer—he rapidly began to acquire a position for — 
himself. He was not only an able man, but also possessed 
a great deal of Count Colli’s personal charm, and was an ~ 
excellent sportsman. Unfortunately his health broke down, ~ 
and he has just recently had to leave the country. ! 

To the strength of the French position I have already — 
referred; their recent representative, M. de Coppet ~ 
(who has just been transferred), is an intellectual and a 


delightful personality, whose tastes incline largely to litera- i 
ture. He is keenly alive to French interests, and rumours 


of further new French concessions and projects were in 
the air when we left. They have not only the railway, — 
and a large voice in the postal service, but have also secured 
the appointment of a French Military doctor to be in 
charge of the hospital founded by Menelik, and of a French © 
‘¢ Adviser? to the Abyssinian Government. I believe ~ 


Political Situation 283 


that officially this description of his appointment is denied ; 
but he is always known as such and referred to as such— 
and in any case that appears to be his job. 

From the details I have given above it will be seen that 
the corps diplomatique is a fairly extensive one, and a 
remarkably active one; I should like to have been able 
to add that it is also a united one. It is certainly more so 
than it used to be; joint action is by no means unknown 
to-day, and it is sincerely to be hoped that such action 
may continue and extend. 

But as regards the past the fact remains that the progress 
of one European country in Abyssinia has been in my view 
wrongly and mischievously regarded as a set-back to the 
others, and that far too much political weight has been 
given to the acquisition of commercial and industrial 
concessions. 

All three of the great Powers concerned—England, 

France, and Italy—have publicly declared their policy to 
be the maintenance of the independence of Ethiopia. 
It is so stated most explicitly in the preamble to the Tri- 
partite Agreement of 1906 between the three countries, 
which commences with the words “ It being the common 
interest of France, Great Britain and Italy to maintain 
intact the integrity of Ethiopia.” 
Our policy towards Abyssinia has been set out repeatedly 
and publicly. It was stated in the following words by 
Sir John Harrington in a speech to the Emperor Menelik 
'on the 11th April, 1905 : 


“In my character of British Minister I am glad to state 
that the British Government does not follow, in reference 
to Ethiopia, any other policy than the maintenance of its 
complete independence.” 


It was last clearly expressed by H.M. King George V 
when he received the Abyssinian Mission sent to Europe 
to congratulate the Allies on their victory in the Great 


284 Political Situation 


War. ‘This speech again contains a specific reference to | 
the maintenance of the independence of Ethiopia, and I 
am quite sure that the only desire of England is to see 
Abyssinia a strong, independent, rich, and progressive | 
country. | 
The days of foreign international intrigue should be 
over, there are no territorial questions left to vex the souls” 
of the Chancelleries, and their joint interests are presumably | 
solely concerned with the development of Abyssinia’s com- 
mercial possibilities along the line of peaceful progress. 
Hitherto Abyssinia cut off from the outside world 
has been left largely without light or guidance; of con- 
certed European effort to assist the country there has been 
little or none, and the Abyssinians believe, rightly or 
wrongly (wrongly, let us hope), that the Foreign Legations 
have never urged any but the interests of their own coun- 
tries and their own nationals; let them disprove this 
belief by jointly urging and supporting measures which 
while benefiting all nationalities will mainly and immedi- 


ately benefit Abyssinia. 


in: 


CHAPTER XXIV 
The Present Condition of the Country 


S I stated in the introduction to the present 
volume, it is difficult to form a really correct 
impression of the state of development at which 
Abyssinia and its people have arrived, and it is 

still more difficult to convey a clear idea thereof to others. 
For any basis of estimation is necessarily comparative, and 
to compare Abyssinia with any other country is impossible. 
You cannot judge by the standards of other African races 
a people with thousands of years of history behind them, 
a people that at one time must undoubtedly have attained 
a high degree of development, possessing ports, trading 
far afield, extending their dominion over many races. Nor 
is it possible to compare them with European countries, 
inasmuch as for centuries they have been isolated and cut 
off from the world, and have indeed been thrown back 
entirely on their own resources. 

Only by a consideration of these factors can the problem 
be at all understood and the strange mixtures and glaring 
contrasts which make up the country’s life to-day be 
brought into focus. 

Abyssinia has only recently emerged from a period of 
 sturm und drang,” following the first real effort that 
she has made in modern times to pursue a policy of develop- 
ment and progress under the guidance of King Menelik. 
Swept back into chaos after the death of that ruler, and 
cut off from commercial intercourse with Europe by the 
Great War, the country for several years exhibited all the 

285 


286 Condition of the Country 


signs of disintegration and reversion to its former congeries 
of semi-independent States. 

And on his accession to power the present Regent had 
the inherited difficulties of his position augmented by the 
dual regime of government which necessarily makes for 
a certain amount of unrest, by plots of a minor character 
and intrigues of all sorts, and also (until recently) by the 
activities of the fugitive Emperor and his adherents. 

For as long as Lej Yasu the Emperor, dispossessed in 1916, 
was at large he commanded a measure of support, and from 
his refuges, first in the Dankali country and later in ‘Tigré, 
he was continually threatening invasion. His capture and 
imprisonment in the summer of 1921 effected a great 
improvement and increased the prestige of the Ras ; this 
necessarily exercised a quietening influence on the country, 

The general position has undoubtedly been steadily, if 
very slowly, improving since then, and I noticed many 
indications of this having occurred even during the interval 
between our two visits to the country. For example, when 
we first arrived in Addis there was a certain amount of 
indiscriminate shooting about the town and it was unwise 
for Europeans to be about after dusk; several houses were 
attacked by thieves, and one or two murders took place. 

These burglaries were generally carried out by armed 
men and some of them were tragic, some almost comic. 
On one occasion it must have become known that a certain 
firm had drawn a considerable number of dollars from the 
Bank in preparation for sending a caravan into the country 
for trading purposes, for on going into the office one 
morning, the man in charge of the money found to his 
surprise a large piece cut out of the wall close to where 
the bags of money had been laid ; he congratulated himself 
greatly at having had the dollars removed to his own 
bedroom the night before! Of course during the night 
he had heard firing, but this had been such a common 
occurrence owing to the nervousness of the guards, who 


= 
°C ye ee 


Condition of the Country 287 


- fired on the smallest noise, that he had not paid any 
attention to it. 

Another night some twenty or thirty Abyssinians broke 
into the store of one of the big Indian merchants; the 
owner himself rushed off for the police, leaving his guards 
_ letting off their fire-arms in the usual useless manner and 
| fighting with the robbers. Meanwhile the thieves had 
collected a lot of his stuff and marched down the main 
Street carrying it off—inter alia, a number of loose sheets 
of corrugated iron. It is said that on these occasions, the 
police used to find it convenient to keep out of the affray 
_ on promise of a share in the spoils, and I was told that after 
: one of these kind of “ entertainments ” one of the burglars 


: 
_who had left his rifle behind came back the next day aided 
by the police to find it! But I have my doubts as to the 
literal truth of this story. 

_ Supposed would-be burglars visited our house in the 
outskirts of the town on one or two occasions. We were 
awakened by a tremendous noise of firing close to the 
windows; by the time I got outside the invaders had 
; disappeared and J was met by a crowd of servants who on 
hearing the firing of the guards had rushed up armed with 
spears, sticks, and anything they could get hold of in their 
hurry. Though we discovered a native parasol abandoned 
near the house the next morning (this may have belonged 
'to a native who had “ dined ” too well and lost his way), 
I always believed this and other similar affairs were got 
up by the night guards to show what fine fellows they were, 
for whenever I went on to the verandah at night I used 
to find our gallant watchdogs fast asleep, and often my 

movements did not awake them. 

In the wild parts of the country there were, here and 
there, bands of robbers who made it their business to 
attack caravans, as for instance, early in 1919, when a 
powerful and well-known Governor was returning from 
Addis to his country. Having stayed in the capital two 


288 Condition of the Country 


| 
| 
or three months and bought a quantity of valuable imported 
goods to take back, he had sent his very large caravan om 
three days before his own start. Some cheery fellows 

attacked it and looted it, clearing the whole thing off, | 
So the Governor hurried out, and when he reached the place 
where the attack had occurred burned the villages, strung. 
up some natives, took others along with him in chains, 
and generally proceeded to make himself popular. No. 
attacks on caravans have since been made in that district. 
Weheard of a fewhalf-hearted attacks in the West on caravans 
carrying merchandise belonging to some European trader or ) 
firm, but these are usually safe if in charge of a white man, 

of sth the native seems to have a wholesome awe. 

However, in considering these incidents it is as well to 
reflect that murders and robberies are, I believe, not un- 
known in Europe, a fact of which the Empress reminded 
a foreign diplomat one day when he was complaining of 
some recent happenings of this nature: ‘“‘ Have you then 
no criminals in your country?”’ remarked Her Majesty. 

No events of this sort took place during our last visit, 
nor did [ hear of any having taken place recently. A shot 
fired in the town was of the rarest occurrence, indeed the 
Foreign Legations had been asked not to shoot in their 
own grounds (some three or four miles out of the town) 
so as to give no excuse to the natives to follow the example 
of others. The police had been considerably strengthened, 
little police posts were to be found distributed all over the 
town, and a general appearance and atmosphere of law 
and order prevailed to a far greater extent than formerly. 

The Government offices though still in an embryonic 
condition were beginning to function, and the establish- 
ment of the Mixed ‘Tribunal which I have described else- 
where marked a further stage in evolution. Road-making 
was also in full swing, 

As to the provinces there were indications of a similar, 
if perhaps less pronounced improvement. ‘The complete 


Condition of the Country 289 


success of the 1921 expedition to the north was highly 
significant, and other signs were not wanting to show that 
civil war will not be so lightly entered upon in the future 
as it has been in the past. 

The present condition of the country has been por- 
trayed in somewhat unnecessarily vivid colours by some 
recent paragraphists. It is, however, hardly surprising 
that Europe should be ill-informed as to the state of affairs 
in Abyssinia, for I have never passed through Djibouti on 
my way up or down without being deluged with alarmist 
statements ranging from epidemics to revolutions. 

But in the course of a fairly long stay in the country 
and of pretty continuous intercourse with many of the 
leading personages one can gather a good deal, and I have 
no hesitation in saying that some of the pictures which have 
recently been drawn of rebellious provinces on the verge of 
breaking out into wholesale revolt, and of the contending 
factions of the Empress and the Ras only awaiting consign- 
ments of arms and ammunition to fly at each other’s 
throats are—well, to put it mildly, “ terminological 
inexactitudes.”’ 

It is my conviction that, apart from a few outlying 
districts imperfectly controlled from headquarters (in the 
Dankali and Ogaden countries, for example), it would be 
quite safe for a European to ride through most of Abyssinia 
with no more lethal form of weapon than a hunting crop. 

But even so it must not be imagined that the country 


_ 1s otherwise than extraordinarily backward, looked at from 


a European point of view. The existence of feudality 


in the form that it does is perhaps as good an indication of 
this as any, and many interesting instances of it can be 
_ witnessed by any traveller in Abyssinia to-day. 


For example, an important source of national wealth 


is the grass of the country, and the commencement of the 


cutting is the occasion of a great festival. The Ras in 


person and his chiefs go out into his grasslands accompanied 
T 


290 Condition of the Country : 
by all their tenants, soldiers, servants, and followers ; 
the Ras personally cuts a little, his example is followed by — 
the chiefs, and then his dependents get to work, and the 
fields are rapidly stripped of their produce by the small 
hand-sickles of the multitude. 

On another occasion I learned that the Empress hadf 
expressed a desire to proceed to a church some three or 
four miles from Addis, but a few days beforehand it was 
discovered that the road was impassable. Again the sub- — 
jects were requistioned by their liege lords; the Ras and” 
every noble and chief then in Addis each peneonily moved 
a few stones on the road, their example being followed by@ 
the lesser chiefs, and so on downwards, until nearly ten 
thousand men were working on the iL which for miley 
was black with the toilers, the scenery being enhanced 
by the bright-coloured robes! parasols, and trappings of 
the mules of the great men wie were superintending the | 

} 


a es 


operations from the shade of the roadside. 

I came across a further example of the system, and one 
which well illustrates its more unfortunate aspects. The 
governor of a large and fertile district in the south-east 
was discussing with me the question of introducing modern © 
agricultural machinery on his estate. I had explained the : 
advantages of motor-ploughs, and had given him ficures 
showing the cost of ploughing per acre with these machines ‘ 
and the rapidity with which the work could be done. 
His reply was, “* Yes, that may be cheap in your country, — 
but it is very dear in mine. For what does it cost me to f 
plough? Every man in my district is obliged to come 
with a yoke or more of oxen and do a given amount of / 
ploughing on my lands. I kill a few oxen to feed them, — i 
which means little to. me, and I have no other expenses. — 
Why should I spend all this money on getting my land — 
ploughed a little more quickly?” ‘That may be good for — 
the governor, but it does not help progress ; this last example - 
shows a vicious state of affairs, which is one of the several — 


Condition of the Country 291 


factors accounting for the non-development of the 
country. 
_ The peasants are on the whole pretty badly treated, 
_as the soldiery, who are ill-paid, are apt to supplement 
their official salaries in ways that would not commend 
_ themselves to British farmers. It must of course be borne 
in mind that this is probably to some extent due to the 
fact that quite a large extent of the country, nearly one 
_ half, has comparatively recently been conquered, and that 
these tracts are for the most part not inhabited by Abys- 
sinians properly so-called, but by Gallas, Danakils, Somals, 
Shankala, Gourage, etc., in which districts the Abyssinians 
are represented merely by their officials and troops. 
The position as regards land tenure is also obscure and 
unsatisfactory. In theory all land belongs to the Crown 
and no one can absolutely own it ; it reverts to or is con- 
fiscated by the Crown on the misconduct of the holder. 
In fact, however, they do buy and sell land among them- 
selves; and the payment of the prescribed taxes in cash, 
Kind, and labour over a period of years seems to be held 
to constitute a title to the land, although there are I believe 
no title deeds outside Addis Ababa. Europeans are not 
supposed to be able to own land, though they do so in 
Addis, but it is difficult for them to acquire it by purchase, 
_and all sorts of subterfuges have been adopted as a conse- 
‘quence. 
We came across two interesting examples of this. The 
first was the case of the Russian Legation, the land belong- 
ing to which had been given to the Russians by Menelik. 
But although the Russians had themselves at their own 
expense built the Legation, and surrounded the grounds 
with a wall, yet on the departure of the Legation in 1919 
the land was taken back again by the Government. 
The second was a case where a merchant wished to buy 
a small piece of land adjacent to his own in Addis Ababa, 
which belonged to an Abyssinian. He was unable to do 


292 Condition of the Country 


so directly and was compelled to go through an elaborate 


pantomime of lending money to the owner on the security 
of the land, foreclosing the debt, and getting the land 
adjudged to him by judicial process in payment of his 
debt. This I was told was a common form of circumventing 


the difficulty, though even in these cases the covering 


permission of the Ras had to be obtained. 


Divided between their desire for European improvements 
and their suspicion of Europeans, the Abyssinians from time 
to time move forward in one direction while steadfastly re- 


maining imbedded in antiquity in another—their acceptance _ 
of the railway and their refusal to allow an aeroplane ‘7 


enter the country is an example of this—and the result is a 


os 


i= 


picture not unlike that recently drawn by one eminently " 
politician of another—one foot in the Middle Ages and 


the other in the League of Nations. 


From the point of view of the traveller and the re 


quite sure that the same epithets would be applicablaay 


searcher it is all very interesting and very fascinating ;_ 
from the point of view of the people, however, I am not 


and from the point of view of the trader I am quite certain 
that they are not. 


If it is not easy to describe faithfully the state of arrested i 


progress and partial development in which the country 


finds itself, it is even less easy to give a satisfactory explana- 
tion of it, or to determine the causes that have operated 
to keep this country, the last independent empire in 
Africa, so far behind the world’s advance. Is it due to 
the mentality of the race and their unwillingness or in- 


capacity to assimilate new ideas, or are external or other 
causes operative ? 

In my view there are a variety of causes, and among 
them I would give first place to the historical. ‘Their 
story is one of perpetual warfare from the very earliest 


times almost up to to-day. ‘They have fought against — 


Arabians, Egyptians, Turks, and Dervishes, neighbouring 


7 


4 


SS 


Condition of the Country 293 


races of all kinds such as Adals, Danakil, and Gallas, later 
against ourselves, and finally against the Italians. When 
there was a pause in external warfare, civil war took its 
place, and Amhara, Tigré, Gojam, and Shoa have in turn 
conquered and been conquered through the ages. ‘They 
have lived surrounded by enemies, and have had no leisure 
to turn to peaceful development. ‘They have had all their 
ports and coastline taken from them, and so have been cut 
off from the world and from progress, and their ships which 
centuries ago traded up the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean 
are now dim memories. 

And recent events have not been more helpful. For 
after the devastating wars prior to the Emperor Menelik’s 
accession the country was beginning to find its feet when 


_ the monarch’s illness and death threw back the dawn of 


progress. Peace seemed to have settled on the land; 
foreign enterprise, heralded by the railway, was beginning 
to turn its attention, very tentatively, towards Abyssinia ; 
European innovations were regarded with less disfavour ; 
the feudal system was being attacked charily, when the 
mainspring of development failed. ‘The consequent in- 
trigue and misrule were intensified by the fact that the 
Powers of Europe had neither men nor money nor interest 
to spare for Abyssinia, and as ships and produce were not 
available, something like the old historic isolation of the 
country enwrapped it once more. 

After the War, the trade slump fell upon and blighted 
the commercial efforts which were then being tried again, 
and it is not surprising that the country is poorer and per- 
haps less settled than it was fifteen years ago, even though 
a great deal better off than it was three or four years ago. 
It is really astonishing that the lapse has not been greater 
than it has, and for this we must thank the railway, which 
reached Addis at the end of 1917, and which although 
otherwise disappointing, has at all events provided a link 
with the outside world. 


294 Condition of the Country 


Another contributory cause is undoubtedly the feudal 


system which I have described above, of the effect of which — 


I have given some examples. And of course the absence 


of all means of communication and transport outside the 


railway has exercised a paralyzing effect. 


Finally, I am sorry to say we must look at home for yet _ 
another cause of lack of development. For foreign inter- — 


national political rivalry has done a great deal to prevent 
development rather than forward it. Every foreign 
Power was so jealous of any advantage obtained by another 
in the country that much negative labour seems to have 


been spent in the past in merely checkmating the efforts — 
of others, unmindful of the fact that the benefit of one — 
must in fact be for the benefit of all. I will not enlarge — 
on this aspect ; it is a delicate one, but it has had a sinister — 


effect. 


These half-dozen causes that I have given are in my — 
view the main contributing reasons for the backwardness 
of this land so favoured by Nature. And the natural 
point to which this brings one is the question of how long — 
this is to last, and what means are possible to improve | 
matters. What, in short, are the possibilities that the © 


future holds for Abyssinia? 


Sete 


CHAPTER XXV 
The Future : Possibilities & Prospects 


HAVE endeavoured in the preceding chapters to 
give my readers as clear a picture as I could of what 
Abyssinia is to-day, of the state of development 
reached by its government and people, and of the 

historical and other causes which in my view are responsible 
for the very curious and anomalous position of this African 
Empire. 

What, then, is to be its future? How long is this strange 
survival of the past likely to continue to exist in its present 
form? Will it so far continue in or relapse into a state 
of semi-barbarism as to cause it to share the fate of the 
rest of Africa, and be either divided amongst or adminis- 
tered by some of the mandatories of the League of Nations? 
Or will it develop itself and gradually take its place among 
the other great nations of the world? 

Prophecy is a dangerous and thankless rdle—and so 
many forecasts regarding Abyssinia have been made only 
to be stultified by subsequent events that it is with some 
diffidence that I attempt the task. 

Writing in 1891, shortly after his return from Abyssinia, 
Sir Gerald (then Mr.) Portal said, referring to the recently 
declared Italian Protectorate over that country: “ Thus 
has ended the independence of Abyssinia. With the death 
of King Johannes died also that autonomy which had been 
the pride of this race for so many centuries. . . . No other 
European can ever grasp the hand of an independent 
Emperor of Ethiopia.” But since then Abyssinia has 

295 


296 Possibilities & Prospects 
made patent her independence in no uncertain manner, 
had. 


The break-up of the Empire at the death of Menelik 
was also foretold by writers well acquainted with the 


and has produced one of the greatest rulers she ever | 


’ 


country—and, as we know, that prophecy has not been © 


fulfilled. And on the other hand great and immediate 
developments were foreshadowed directly the railway should 
reach Addis Ababa—but we have yet to see them. 


The subject I think must be looked at from two points — 


of view, namely, the latent potentialities of the country, 
and the probabilities or possibilities of their utilization. 
The visions which one has are almost limitless. Is it 
impossible to conceive of the opening up of the country by — 
a railway running east and west from the Red Sea to the | 


Soudan in continuation of the present line, and its junction — 


in Western Abyssinia with the Cape to Cairo railway — 
running north and south, now only 150 miles from the 
north-eastern frontier, both railways throwing out feeders 
to tap the provinces that lie near them? And the conse- 
quent development of the trade and industry of the 
country on a huge scale, the cultivation of cotton, | 
rubber, sugar, coffee, and grain of all kinds; the im- 
provement of the breed of cattle, and the establishment 
of factories for dealing with the by-products of the 
cattle industry ; the construction of roads; the utiliza- 


ie 


tion of the water supplies of the country for irrigation — 


and for power; the development of its mineral re-— 


sources, -etc. etc. 


f 


Are these idle dreams, or are they ideas capable of — 


realization? And if so, when and by what means? 

It is difficult to refer to the possibilities of the country — 
as one sees it to-day without seeming exaggeration, and I 
do not desire to emulate the efforts of a distinguished 


American traveller, who, on the faith of a nine days’ stay — 


in Addis Ababa, which he reached by a rapid dash from the 


Possibilities & Prospects 297 


coast whither he returned equally rapidly, wrote of having 
seen gems “‘ scattered over the desert waste washed down 
from the mountains above,” crystals which he was told 
“suggest diamonds” and “ specimens pointing to rubies, 
opals, and emeralds.” ‘The extraction of copper, iron, and 
the ordinary ores was “merely a question of finding 
facilities for shipment,” and “ gold was hidden away in 
the mountains in quantities which can be estimated by 
no existing data.” 

I am not prepared to endorse these remarks. But 
if you have combined a sojourn in the country 
with some study of its history and an examination 
of the map it is difficult not to feel optimistic as to its 
possibilities. 

The wonderful climatic conditions which allow of the 
growth in one part of the country or another of almost 
everything the world produces; the remarkable fertility 
of the soil as a result of which three crops a year can be 
harvested in many districts; the vast herds of cattle, 
and flocks of sheep and goats scattered all over the 
country; the abundance of natural water power; the 
probability of mineral deposits — all these factors 
contain the germs of almost unbounded prosperity, and 
constitute a fair claim for Abyssinia to be regarded as one 
of the richest, if not the richest, undeveloped portion of 


Africa. 


Now it is clear that development on anything like the 


scale indicated needs more than the spasmodic efforts of 


a few traders and small concessionaires ; the work could 
only be undertaken : 


(1) by the Home Government. 
(2) by powerful private native groups. 
(3) by Foreign Governments. 
(4) by private foreign groups. 
or 
(5) by a combination of some or all of these. 


298 Possibilities & Prospects 


T think that the second and third possibilities may bd 
eliminated at once. For there are no Abyssinians with the 
capacity, the wealth, or the knowledge to undertake, 
unaided, anything of the sort themselves. And the idea 
of foreign State aid would not merely be unwelcome to, 
but would be bitterly resented by the Abyssinians. As > 
I have already pointed out, they are intensely jealous of 
foreign government interference in any domestic matters 
whatever ; and in any commercial concession which they! 
now give, they insert a clause to the effect that it shall 
not be sold or transferred to a foreign State. No foreign” 
State is likely to thrust itself in or to take any action” 
which might be regarded as infringing the sovereign 
tights of Ethiopia, for the three mainly concerned 
(England, France, and Italy) have formally and publicly 
professed support to the doctrine of an “independent 
Ethiopia.” 

It may be asked, why, if this is so, the Abyssinians should \ 
Hesitate. to avail -themsclyes of foreign State aid. Why, if 
these foreigners have pledged themselves not to violate 
the independence of the country, should their assistance 
not be invoked to develop it? Well, the answer is, that” 
despite treaties and public professions of faith, suspicion 
remains — and suspicion is a pretty strong factor in” 
Africa. : 

The Abbysinians know that practically all Africa 
has been partitioned out amongst European Powers, 
and even as they have hitherto been ‘“‘an island” 
of Christians in a sea of pagans” so now they 
desire to remain an island of independence in a 
sea of conquest. And they fear the thin end of the 
wedge. ; 

So I think we may rule out direct and material foreign | 
State intervention in matters commercial, until and unless 
very considerable changes take place in the country, though — 
in another sphere and in another way (to which I refer 


¥ 
} 
é 
{ 


f 


Possibilities & Prospects 299 


later) the Governments of Europe might well be of assist- 
ance to Abyssinia. 

There remain the possibilities of the Abyssinian Govern- 
ment itself undertaking developments, or such develop- 
ments being undertaken by powerful private foreign 
_ groups. 

_ There are valid reasons why either of these courses 
alone would be unlikely to be successful; the Abyssinian 
Government does not possess adequate financial resources, 
nor men with the necessary capacity and experience. And 
| cen private enterprise needs the stimulus and the sup- 

_ port, even the active co-operation, of the home Government 

before it would launch itself on any very extensive under- 

takings in that country. 

We are therefore thrown back on the last of the 
several courses I suggested, namely, a combination of 
the home Government and private foreign capital and 
- enterprise. 

For if the assistance of foreign groups with their capital 
vand their resources is essential yet it is no less essential 
that there should be stability of government, maintenance 

| of law and order, encouragement of enterprise, safety for 
the individual and his goods, before undertakings on the 
“necessary scale can be launched. And these preliminary 
conditions cannot all be said to exist at present to the 
extent which it is essential that they should. Indeed trade 
-and industry may be said to have existed until recently in 
spite of the difficulties they encountered from the existing 
form of government and from its officers, imposts, and 
burdens. 

Therefore if foreign capital is to be introduced on a large 
scale to develop the immense possibilities of this land so 
favoured of Nature, it is obvious that the Government 
‘Must put its house in order, and hold out to it a helping 
hand. 

We come, therefore, to the question of whether the 


— Oe Oe OS - - 


300 Possibilities & Prospects 


Abyssinians, or any of them, realize the position, whether 
they are manifesting any desire or intention to grapple 
with it, and what prospect of success attends their 
efforts. 

To the first two questions at all events I think I can 
safely give an affirmative answer. ‘The Prince Regent 
Ras Tafari is, as I have pointed out in the sketch I have 
previously given of him, an enlightened man, devoted 


to the interests of his country, and an enthusiastic supporter 


of reform and progress. He has recently evolved a “ pro- 


gramme,” and if he is able to give effect to this programme 


there should be little doubt as to the future of his country. 
It includes: 


1. The regulation of commercial transactions. 
2 a es land taxation. 

Ret yess 4 the tribunals. 

4. Disarmament of the population. 

5. Suppression of traffic in slaves. 

6. Organization of education. 


It is an ambitious list of projects and needs but few 
words of explanation. ‘The first item refers to such matters 
as the granting of concessions on a proper basis, the enact- 
ment of mining laws, the registration of companies, and 


other questions ifeceae trade. 

The second is of vital importance and is likely to have. 
a more immediate and far-reaching effect than anything: 
else which could be done in the country. For if the 


system of taxation and the method of collection could be 
properly revised and placed under capable control the 
peasant would have an incentive to produce which he lacks 
at present (as I have explained in detail elsewhere), and the’ 


production of the country would thus be increased enor- 
mously, the trader would find an infinitely greater market 


for his goods, the financier would be attracted to the 


’ 


eee. t‘“FeqSE 


Possibilities & Prospects 301 


country, and the Government would acquire the where- 
withal to carry out numberless much-needed reforms in 
various directions. This step is beyond doubt the most 
important, the most requisite, and the one which should 
be carried out first. 

If to this be added the reform of the Customs, and later 
on of its allied system of taxation, the Government would 
have to its hand an immediate and direct way in which 


it could not only obtain a good deal of money, but 


could also assist trade enormously and give an earnest 
of its desire for the material welfare and progress of the 
country. 

The maladministration of the Customs is a subject 
I have dealt with elsewhere, and I will consequently 
not enlarge upon it here. But I will merely repeat 
that the burden the present system inflicts upon trade is 
incalculable, and that a very small proportion of the 
receipts finds its way into the pockets of the Govern- 
ment. 

If the whole customs and fella system throughout the 
country were placed under the control of a strong, compe- 
tent European, who was persona grata with the Abyssinians 
and with the three main European Legations at Addis, 
but entirely independent of the latter and of their Govern- 
ments and responsible only to the Abyssinian Government, 
paid by it, and armed with full powers by it, then I feel 
that the first step would have been taken towards real 
and material progress. 

If this reform were successful, and there is no reason 
why it should not be, others would follow; but it does 
seem that this is the most practicable and the first step to 
be taken. It would not impinge on Abyssinia’s inde- 
pendence nor be violently revolutionary, but it would 
in a few years bring practical and obvious results in the 
shape of dollars and thus commend itself to the people of 
the country. 


302 Possibilities & Prospects 


As to the other proposals, the reform of the judicial 
tribunals is a self-explanatory one; it hangs very largely 
on the financial reforms referred to above, which if carried 
out, would permit of and indeed necessitate the payment 
of local governors and officials (who now act as judges) 
on quite a different basis. I have referred elsewhere to one 
important step which has already been taken in this con- 
nection, namely, the establishment of the Mixed Court 
at Addis Ababa. 

Preliminary steps in connection with the disarmament 
of the population have been taken. In certain districts 
orders have been issued for the registration of the names 
of those possessing fire-arms, together with the number of 
cartridges held by them. It is obvious that the power of 
the central government must be greatly increased by the 
limitation of armament of the subjects of the various 
feudal chiefs throughout the country. 

With regard to the two remaining items of the pro- 
gramme the question of the abolition of the traffic in 
slaves has been dealt with very fully in a chapter devoted 
to that subject, and the organization of public education 
is a reform the nature and desirability of which need no 
explanation. 

It is obvious, therefore, that the man who is the practical - 
head of the Abyssinian State is not only alive to the 
necessity for reforms but that he is also doing what in 
him lies to promote them. His difficulties, are however, 
very great, and unfortunately these difficulties which 
are mainly internal have not been materially lessened 
from abroad. 

The sacred voice of ‘‘ public opinion” is frequently 
invoked by publicists in this country to point to and urge 
the necessity of this, that, or the other action being taken, 
whether in their own or some other land. And it is of 
course obvious that any European Government that 
deliberately flouted genuine and widely held public opinion 


Possibilities & Prospects 303 


in its own country would rapidly reap its reward—at the 
polls. Critics of Abyssinia seem to forget that there is 
a form of “ public opinion ” in that country also; not 
expressed by newspapers and democratic orators but none 
the less real for that. And if the rulers of Abyssinia 
endeavoured to enforce drastic changes too rapidly in 
the country against the views of the mass of the population, 
they would also reap their reward—not at the polls but 
in a more drastic and painful fashion. 

Now while it is true, as [ have said, that the Regent is 
fully alive to the necessity and desirous of the introduction 
_of change he has been, and still is, hampered (just as Menelik 
was) by the antipathy and even hostility of much of the 
population, and he is still further hampered (as Menelik 
was not) by the existence of a dual form of Government 
part of which is known to hold reactionary views and to 
be opposed to foreigners and all their ways. 

Consequently it behoves him to proceed with caution, 
and in such progressive efforts as he does make he is entitled 
to the active support and assistance of Europe, support 
which so far he has not received to any appreciable extent. 
He needs moral support to encourage him to commence 
his work of reform, and material support to carry it through 
and deal with such opposition as may arise. By this I do 
not mean interference, direction, or control which as I 
have already pointed out would be bitterly resented, but 
a knowledge that his motives are understood, his efforts 
appreciated, and his position assured. 

If this were done it is highly probable that internal 
opposition to reform would lose in intensity and gradually 
pass away. It is true that such opposition does exist, 
but other influences may come to affect the position. 
Signs were not wanting, even when we were there, that all 
were not satisfied with their lot, and that reform would not 
be so generally resisted as might be thought. It was 
rumoured that the soldiery on being ordered to undertake 


204 Possibilities & Prospects 


a recent expedition had questioned the desirability of it; 
that their treatment by their chiefs had been openly 
discussed ; and that their views had to be listened to by 
their chiefs. Whether this was true or not, I cannot say, 
but it is at least remarkable that it should have been openly 
talked about. 

I have spoken with various of the more enlightened 
people in the country, men who might be described as 
“Young Abyssinians,”’ and I have been surprised to find 
how interested they were in the progress of their country 
and its development on European lines, and how reasonable’ 
were their ideas. ‘There was nothing revolutionary about 
them—they seemed merely anxious that the obstacles 
standing in the way of the Prince Regent’s progressive 
schemes should be removed so that his programme shoul 
be carried out. ‘The reactionary and oppressive policy 
of the Church and of its supporters and its manifold short 
comings were quite strongly condemned ; and the impres- 
sions I derived from these talks were that support given to 
Ras Tafari to push on with his ideas would be welcomed 
by most of what is best in the country. ‘ 

Abyssinia though surrounded by the possessions of other 
countries on all sides is at present singularly little affected 
by them, for they consist for the most part of thinly 
Populated little developed territories. But they will 
not always remain so, and even as it is, foreign ideas 
trickle in. So that cHerer is always the possibility of ne 
and now non-suspected sources providing incentives : 
progress. P| 

If nothing is done to improve matters, if the Regent’ $ 
plans are frustrated or indefinitely postponed by opposition 
from within or lack of encouragement from without, then T 
fear that there is a serious risk that the country will go back. 
And if this happens, then the outlook will be grave, 
for discontent will make itself manifest, and sooner or later 
lead to revolution. Discontent is not found as a rule in 


on 
» 


Possibilities & Prospects 305 


-acountry growing rich under an enlightened government 
really working for the prosperity of the population. But 
_when the country grows poorer, suffers under heavy and 
_ unjust taxation, and the many are exploited for the benefit 


of the few, then is trouble likely to arise. 

There is, however, no reason why it should do so, if 
only the Regent is enabled to move in the right direction 
as he wishes to do. If the Abyssinians could be persuaded 
that the three great foreign Powers with which they have 
to deal are single-minded and united in their desire to 


further the prosperity of the country, and if these three 
_ Powers would jointly and genuinely give practical support 
to development on the lines I have ventured to sketch, 


then I feel sure that we should see the dawn of an era 
of really remarkable prosperity for Ethiopia. 
And just as it is essential for the Powers to act together 


(to convince the Abyssinians of their bona fides, if for no 
other reason) so it is essential for England to be amongst 


them. For England in defence of her own external in- 
terests, is interested in the strengthening and development 
of the Government of Abyssinia to an extent greater than 
that of any other foreign Power. 

Our vast co-terminous frontiers, protected by treaty it 
is true but otherwise largely unguarded; our immense 


imterest in the waters of Lake Tsana and the Blue and 


Black Niles for the welfare of Egypt and the Soudan; our 
neighbouring commercial and transport interests—all these 
make our stake in the matter of a strong and stable Abys- 
sinian Government a most important and far-reaching one. 

A weak Abyssinia is a danger to the neighbouring Colonies 
by which she is surrounded, and a continued source of 
trouble and expense to their administrations, be they 
English, French, or Italian. On the other hand a strong 
government, a contented country, and a progressive com- 
mercial policy would not merely be to the incalculable 


advantage of Abyssinia itself, but must also tend to the 
U 


easing of its neighbours’ difficulties and to a great expan- 
sion of their trade. -- ; 

Where the interests of all concerned are, as in the presi 
case, identical, it ought not to be thever ate to find means ~ 
to achieve the desired end; I feel convinced that this is” 
well worth doing, that it neue to be done, and that i in 
spite of its difficulties it can be done, given the united and 
tactful co-operation with Anreia of the three great 


Powers who stand for the progress of civilization in Africa ‘ 


306 Possibilities & Prospects q 
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A 

Abai, the, 32 
— method of crossing, 231 
Abouna, the, 90, 125-6 
Abreha, King, 126 
Abyssinia— 

Entrance to, 20, 22-3 

Extent of, 27 


Geographical and climatic conditions 


27-33 
Abyssinians, the— 
Appearance, 39-40 
Characteristics, 40-9 
Distribution, 38 
Numbers, 38 
Origin and evolution, 81 
Addis Ababa— 
Arrival at, 26 
Climate of, 29 
Foundation of, 144 
Horse market, 153 
Population of, 150 
Sulphur baths, 154-5 
Water supply, 156 


Aden, 199 


Adowa, battle of, 99, 173, 177 
Adulis inscriptions, 86 
Aeizanes, King, 87 
Aeroplanes, 174-5 

Afa Negus, the, 114 

Afdam, Mt., 24 

Agricultural implements, 218 
Ahmed Gran, 92-3, 236 
Akaki River, 146 

Alarmist statements, 289 
Ali, Ras, 95 

Alliance Francaise, 265 
Alula, Ras, 177 


_ Alvarez, Father F., 18 
_ Amda Sion I, King, 92 


American influence, 265, 266, 267 


_ Amhara, 27 
_ Amharic, 161 


Amusements, 76 
Animals, 241 

Ants, 250 

Arabian influences, 83 
Araki, 67 . 


_ Aram (see Ori) 
_ Ark of the Covenant, 85 
_ Armbruster, C. H., 161 


INDEX 


Army— 
Commissariat, 173 
Discipline and uniform, 175 
Grades, 178 
Pay, 178 
Strength, 172-4 
Arussi, 190 
Arnssi Galla— 
C. thing, 52 
Food, 53 
Superstitions, 55-6 
Wedding customs, 54. 
Women, 53 
Assa, Lake, 32 
Assabot, Mt., 24 
Atbara River, 31 
Athill, Major, 272 
Attitude to Europeans, 40-1 
Axum, 33-4 
— Kingdom of, 86 


B 


Baboons, 244-5 

Beda Maryam, King, 18 
Baga, 29 

Baksheesh, 46, 106 

Balanos, M., 280 

Bank of Abyssinia, 23, 202, 207 
Banquets, 63-4, 109, 110 
Baro River, 231 

Basket weaving, 224 

Beke, Dr., 222 

Belgian influence, 265-6 
Bent, Theodore, 34 

Bentley, Captain, 42, 14.9 
Berbera, 198 

Betwadet, the, 105 

Birds, 245-7 

Birds of prey, 62 

Boran, 28 

Branca Leone, Francisco de, 17 
Bread, 65 

Bridges, 231 

British influence, 267 
Broundo (see Meat, raw) 
Bruce, James, 19, 94, 127, 273 
Budge, Sir E. W., 164 
Buildings, Portuguese, 19 
Burglaries, 286 

Burton, Sir Richard, 33 


307 


308 


Cc 


Calendar, the, 160-3 
Campbell, Mr., 278 
Candace, Queen, 123 
Caravans, 230 
— attacks on, 287 
Cattle, 251 
Cave-dwellers, 26 
Cederquist, Mr., 160 
Chalcedon, Council of, 124 
Chamma, the, 70-1 
Chefneu, M., 273-4 
Chick peas, 219 
Christianity— 
Conversion to, 122-3 
Effect of, 122 
Extent of, 124 
Chronicles of Abyssinia, 83-4 
Chronology, 162-3 
Church, the— 
Independence of, 125 
Non-proseletyzing efforts, 130 
Power of, 115 
Services, 133 
Wealth and influence, 126-7 
Church of St. George, 132-3 
Churches, 132 
Circumcision, 69 
Clitoridectomy, 69 
Coffee, 196 
Colli, Count, 260, 282 
Comboul, M., 225 
Communications, 227, 231-2 
Concessions, 203-4 
Consuls, 278-9, 281 
Conventions (see Treaties) 
Coppet, M. de, 282 
Cosmas Indicopleustes, 86 
Cotton growing, 222 
— imports, 197, 200, 201 
Court, the, 108-110 
Courtesy, 42 
Courts, consular, 121 
— Mixed, 121 
Covilham, Pedro da, 18 
Critics of Abyssinia, 303 
Crocodiles, 33 
Currency, 205-7 
Customs, the— 
Administration, 212-14 
Addis Ababa, 213 
Dirre-Daoua, 213 
Djibouti, 212 
Duties, 213 
Internal, 214 
Reform of, 301 


D 
Danakil, the, 28, 39 


Index 


Danakil, the appearance, 59 

— — characteristics, 59-60 

— — distribution, 59 

— — origin, 59 

Dance of the Priests, 61, 140-1 
Dancing, 168-9 

Dankali country, 28 

Debra Damo, 88 

Debra Libanos, 126, 164 

Dergo, 105, 239, 240 

Desiccation of the country, 31-2 
Development of Abyssinia, 285, 297 
Dirre-Daoua, 23-4 

Disease, 47-9 

Divorce, 68 

Djam Djam, forest of, 33 
Djibouti, 20-22, 198-9 

Dodds, Major, C.M.G., 260-1, 278 
Dogs, pariah, 154 

Dollar, the Maria Theresa, 205, 211 
— the Menelik, 205 

— fluctuation of, 208-9 

Dourah, 219 

Dress, 70-3 


E 


Early travellers, 17-20 
Easter, 141 

Education, 157-160 

— Director of, 157 

Egyptian influences, 83-4, 86 
— irrigation, 273 

Empress, the (see Zauditu) 
Endjera, 219 

Entertaining, 262 

Ethiopia, 27, 82-3 
Eucalyptus trees, 26, 145 
European influence, 264 

— interests and frontiers, 305 
Europeans, 256 

Excavations, French, 36-7 
— German, 34 


Factories, 226 

Falasha, the, 28 

— attitude to, 129 

— characteristics of, 58-9 

— distribution of, 39 

— origin, 58 

— religion, 58 

— revolt of, 88 

Fantasia, a, 176 

Fasting, 134 

Feast days, 134-41 

Fertility of soil, 218 

Fetha Nagast, 114-15 

Feudal system, 102-3 . 
— — examples of, 289-90 bi 


Fig trees, 321 
Finger-prints, 158 

Flax, 220 

Fondness for children, 45 
Food crops, 219 

Forests, 33 

France, difficulties with, 276 
French aspirations, 274 

— influence, 275, 277, 282 
Frontiers of Abyssinia, 271 
Funerals, 79-80 


G 


Gabar system, 52, 189-90 
Gaberu, Kantibar, 159 
Galla, the, 28, 39 

— appearance of, 51-2 

— Arussi (see Arussi Galla) 
— characteristics of, 51 

— invasion of, 93, 123 

— language, 161 

— origin of, 50-1 

— religions of, 124 

— Shoan, 56-7 

— tombs, 55 

Gama, Christoforo da, 19, 93 
Gambela, 231, 278 

Gebbi, the, 107-8, 147-8 
Gebbur, the, 63-4 
German influence, 265-6 
Geshen, Amba, 88 

Geze, language, 115, 128, 161 
Gibbon, E., 87, 94, 192 
Gilmour, T. Lennox, 227 
Gojam, 27 

Gold, 225 

Gombos, 224 

Gondar, 19 

Goreza monkeys, 245 
Gourage, the, 28, 39 

— appearance, 57 

— characteristics, 57 

— origin, 57-8 
Government offices, 288 
Grass, 220 

Grecian influences, 83, 122 
Guarantors, 118 

Guccho, 67, 220 


H 
Hail, 31 
Haile Giorgis, 105 
Haile Melekot, King, 96, 133 
Hairdressing, 73-5 
Hamites, 81-2 
Hand-looms, 223 
Hangings, 115-6 
Hanotaux, G., 275 


Index 309 


Hapta Giorgis, Fitorauri, 43, 105, 174, 179, 
180 

Harbours, 272 

Harrar, province, 28, 274 

— town, 33 

Harrington, Sir John, 276, 278, 283 

Harris, Captain, 273 

Harvesting, 218 

Hawash, rest-house, 24 

— River, 24, 32 

Hawks, 248 

Herui, Belata, 121, 159 

Hewett, Admiral Sir William, 97, 274 

Hides, 195-6 

Himyaritic inscriptions, 36-7 

Hindlip, Lord, 21, 228 

Hippopotamus, 243 

— eaters, 53 

Hodson, Arnold, 35 

Honey, 221 

Horsemanship and horse furniture, 76-7 

Horses, 253 

Hospital, American, 266 

Hospitals, 107, 112 

Hotel de France, 152 

— Imperial, 152 

Houses, 77-9 

Hyenas, 249 

— an attack by, 233-4 


I 


Independence of Abyssinia, 283,2 98 
India, connection with, 94 

Iron, 225 

Islam, progress of, 130-1 

— warfare with, 91-3 

Italian influence, 281-2 

— protectorate, 274 

Itcheque, the, 126 


Ivory, 197 
J 


Jewish influence, 61, 122 

John (Johannes), King, 97-8 
Judith, Queen of Falashas, 88-9 
Justice, provincial, 119-20 
Justinian, connection with, 192 
— Embassy from, 88 


K 


Kabana, River, 146 

Kaffa province, 28 

K’ aramth, 29 

Karsa, Ras (see John, King) 
Kassala Railway Company, 222 
Kebra Nagast, the, 164 

Kings, list of, 82 

Kirch, Emil, 280 


310 Index 


L Minister of War (see Hapta Giorgis, 
Fitorauri) } 


Laessoe, Major de, 243 Ministers, 104-5 
> 


Lagarde, M., 273 


Lakes, chain of, 32- ~~, Foreign, 279-86 3 
Lalibala, King, 45,85 Mission to Europe, 159, 283 ‘ 
— — attempt to divest Nile, 89 Missionaries, educational work, 157-8 ‘ 
— rock churches of, 35-6 = expulsion of, 4; 130 i 
Languages, 161 — Jesuit seventeenth-century success, 94 : 
Land-tenure, 291 a modern efforts, 130 , 
Lasta, 28 Mobilization, 171 } 
Law, courts of, 114 Modernization, 269 ; 
— position of foreigners before, 120 Monophysite doctrine, 184-5 
League of Nations, 295 Seas eee shite isa 
Lebna Dengel (David), King, 92-3 “ta nee on, Dr., 16r i? 
Legations, Foreign— DOr anes 67, 2 
Belgian, 279 Mosaic Law, 115, 117 {i 
British, 257, 278 Moslem Invasion, 92-3, 123 
French, 257, 281 Mourning, 72 Be 
German, 279 Mules, 236-7 d 
Italian, 257, 281-2 Music, 166-8 a 
Russian, 151, 280-1 Mutilation of dead, 177-8 i 
Lej Yasu, Emperor, 100-1, 103, 131, 270 ‘ 
Leopards, black, 242 a 
Likemaquas, 179 N 4 
Lima, Rodriguez da, 18 Nacueto Laab, King, go By. 
Literature, 163-5 Ey. Nado, Dejazmach, 73 tr 
Locusts, excommunication of, 18-19 Nagadis, 222, 236-8 a 
Ludolph, 252 Napier of Magdala, Lord, expedition of, F 4 
. 433 445 45) 273 A 
M Nile, Blue, 31 } 
Mad Mullah, 172, 280 — White, 31 | 
Mahomet, connection with Abyssinia, g1 Nubia, 83 
Mahrattas, relations with, 94 Nyala, 243 
Maize, 219 Af 
Makeda (see Sheba, Queen of) v i 
Makonnen, Ras, 100, 110 : ‘ 
Manchester Cotton Association, 222 eigen ARE Bs 07 My 
Mangesha, Ras, 170 Opaden 28 * 
Manuscripts, 164— . : 
Pesta) Oil, 225 ; 
Marchand, Major, 43, 98, 179 cane 223 , 
Maria Theresa dollar (see Dollar) AE aa " 
8) 223-4 
ceed asin ee : Ori (Aram), 82 fi 
arriage customs, 67- : f: 4 
Maskal, feast of, 134, 136-7 eto chrs a20 2 i 
Maskaram, 135 : 
Matab, the, 73 Pp 6 
Meat, eating raw, 61-5 
— — — effect of, 65 Paez, Father P., 19 Ni 
— — live, 62-3 Pageantry, religious, 110, 137-141 es 
Mecca, defeat at, 87 Painting, 165-6 * 
Menelik I, King, 84-5 Paper chases, 261 A. 
Menelik II, Emperor, 44, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, | Patriotic League, British, 265 Sf 
103, 126, 145, 155, 156, 160, 185 Penal Code, 115, 116, 117 Ni 
Menin, Waizeru, 111, 112 Pepper, 65-6, 220 at 
Mental attributes, 49 Piacentini, Signor, 282 1% 
Meroe, 82 Political parties, 271 
Metcha, Mt., 32 Polo, 260 
Mikhael, Ras, 100 Population, 38 


Minerals, 225 Portal, Sir Gerald, 274, 295 


Portuguese Embassy, 1520-7, 93 

— military mission, 1541, 93 

— religious penetration, 94 

Postal and Telegraph service, 106-7 
Pottery making, 224 

Present condition, reasons for, 292-3 
Prester John, Land of, 18 

Priests, numbers of, 127 

— ordination of, 127-8 

— power of, 128 

Princes, confinement of, 88 

— massacre of, 88-9 

Produce, variety of, 217 

Ptolemy Euergetes, 86, 242 
Punishments, 47, 115, 118 

Punt, Kingdom of, 86 


R 


Race meetings, 60 

Railway extension, 296 

Railway, Franco-Ethiopian— 
Condition of, 228 
Concession for, 276 
Construction of, 227 
Difficulties to loaders, 214-6 
Management difficulties, 229-30 
Political difficulties, 228 
Travelling on, 20-6 

Rains, 29-30 

— effect on Egypt, 31 

Reade, Winwood, 126, 273 


Index 


R11 


Sheba, Queen of, 84-5 

Shoa, 28, 38, 89, 95-8, 273 
Silversmiths, 224 

Sistra, 168 

Skinner, Robert, 21 

Skins, 196 

Slavery, attitude to, 182 

— extent and nature of, 183 
—proposals regarding, 189 
Slave Trading, decline of, 185 


— — proposals for dealing with, 186-8, 302 


Smoking, 66 

Sobat River, 231 

Soldiery, characteristics of, 47 
Solomon, King, 84-5 

Solomon’s Line, expulsion of, 88 
— — foundation, 84 

— — restoration of, 89, 99, 9! 
Somaliland, French, 81 

Somals, the, 28 

— Issa and Ogaden, 39 

Soudan Plantations Syndicate, 222 
Soudanese, 272 

Southard, Mr., 281 

Sporting qualities, 44 

Stern, 133, 225 

Superstitions, 142-3 

Suspicion and pride, 44 


‘. 
Tabot, the, 133-4, 138, 140 


Tafari, Ras, 26, 100, IOI, 110, III, 112, 113, 


138, 140, 155, 156, 1725 173, 175) 1795 
180, 186-8, 204, 216, 286, 300, 302-4 


Red Sea, 32 
Reforms, 190, 301-3 
Regent, the Prince (see Tafari, Ras) 


Religious tolerance, 128-9 
Revenue (see Taxation) 
Rhinoceros, 243 

— hunting extraordinary, 243-4 
Riches of Abyssinia, 297 
River system, 33 

Rodd, Sir Rennell, 276 
Rudolph, Lake, 32 

Russell, Mr. Claud, 218 
Russian influence, 265 280-1 
— Legation, the, 151, 


Ss 


Sabzan influence, 36-7 
Salt, deposits of, 225 
Salt, H., 63 

Schools, 157, 160 
Seals, use of, 157-8 


Sehala Mariam (see Menelik II, Emperor) 


Sehala Salassie, King, 133, 236, 273 
Semitic influences, 85-6 

Semyen, 28 

Servants, 257 

Shankala, the, 39, 60, 187 


Taitu, Empress, 100-1 

Tajura Bay, 21 

— — annexation of, 21 

Talla, 67, 219 

Taufikia, 231 

Taxation, 105-6, 211 

Tchertcher, Mts., 24 

Teff, 219 

Tej, 67 

Tekla Haimanot, Saint, 89-90 126 

Tekla Haimanot, King, 99 

Temkat, 134, 137-141 

Tessama, Ras, 101 

Theodore, King, birth, 95 

— — defeat and death, 97 

— — early history, 96 

— — seizure of power, 46 

Thessiger, the Hon. Wilfred, 278 

Tigré, 27 

Tigrein, 161 

Trade routes, 197-8 

Treaties— 
First treaty with England, 1841, 95 
— — — France, 1843, 95 
Second treaty with England, 1849, 95 


312 


Treaties— 

Treaty between Kings John and Menelik, 
1878, 98 
Anglo-Abyssinian Treaty, 1884, 125 
— — — (Slavery), 1884, 183 
Italo-Abyssinian (Ucciali), 1889, 99 
Anglo-Abyssinian Treaty, 1897, 276 
— — — 1902, 31 
Tripartite (England, Italy, and France, 
Agreement, 1906, 201 

Franco-Abyssinian, 198, 120 

Trekking, cost of, 238 

— equipment, 236, 238, 240 

— outfit, 236-7 

— pleasures of, 233-4 

— supplies, 240 

Troglodyte savages, 242 

Tsana, Lake, 32 

Turks, attacks on Abyssinia, 92 

Tutankhamen, 75, 168 

— embassy to, 83 


U 
Ucciali, treaty of, 99 


V 
Vegetables, 217, 221 
Victoria, Queen, 133 
Vultures, 247 


The Mayflower Press, Plymouth. 


Index 


Ww 
Waag, 28 
Walaga, 28 
Warlike qualities, 43 
Wastefulness, 46 
Wax, 196-7, 222 
Weld-Blundell, H., 165 
Winogradoff, M., 151 
Wives, affection for, 45-6 
Women, position of, 68-9 
Wright, Dr., 164 
Wylde, A., 47, 183, 217, 273 


x. 


Yedjow Galla, dynasty of, 95 
Yekuno Amlak, King, go 
Yemen, conquest of, 87 

** Young ”’ Abyssinians, 304 


Z 
Zabanias, 237-8 
Zague, usurpation of, 89, go 
Zauditu, Empress, 100-1, 108-110 
— — letter from, 136 
Zequala, Mt., 152 
Zwai Lake, 53-4, 56, 235-6, 246 
— — canoes on, 53-4 


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